ComposingEducationType.pdf

DOI: 10.1002/yd.20462

O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E

Composing leadership education byinstitutional type

Rich Whitney1 Jasmine D. Collins2

1 University of La Verne

2 University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

CorrespondenceRich Whitney, LaFetra College of Education atthe University of La Verne, 1950 3rd Street, LeoHall 101, La Verne, CA 91750.Email: [email protected]

AbstractThis issue highlights leadership developmentapproaches within institutional contexts that havenot been well represented in leadership educationresearch. As the first publication in the field to addressracial equity through the lens of institutional type inthis way, authors were given the challenging task oflaying a conceptual, historical, and empirical foun-dation for readers in the absence of a robust bodyof literature. What follows is a synthesis of themesobserved across each of the articles, concluding withimplications for inclusive leadership research andpractice.

INTRODUCTION

“God gave us 12 notes,” Oscar winner Jon Batiste said during his speech when he becamethe second Black composer to win for writing an original score (Burlingame, 2021). Hisspeech continues explaining these 12 musical notes are the same ones used by greats likeDuke Ellington, Bach, and Nina Simone. The magic resides not in the notes themselves,but in how the composer puts them together to make music and to communicate theirmessage to others in unique and special ways. It is the reflection of the composer’s identity,point of view, and lived experiences within a particular time and place that that gives thework its salience. The same thing can be said for the delivery of leadership developmentand education. Leader development occurs as an individual incorporates new leadershipknowledge, skills, behaviors, and mental schemas into existing cognitive and deep identitystructures (Day et al., 2009; Komives et al., 2005). Decades of student leadership researchhave culminated in a widely-accepted pool of theories, methods, competencies, and skillsfrom which leadership programs routinely draw (Guthrie & Chunoo, 2018; Seemiller &Whitney, 2020). However, the place in which leadership is taught and studied is gener-ally taken for granted when researchers examine student leadership outcomes. Taken-for-granted assumptions also occur through the use of color-blind and culture-neutral theo-retical and analytical approaches that neglect identity and lived experience. Without theaddition of these layers, the notes fall flat.

There are over 5000 institutions of higher education in the United States (PennGSE,2021). However, it is generally the case that it is only when an institution/organization isNOT a predominantly White, and male-serving body that the higher education community

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uses descriptors to distinguish the differences. The field of leadership education tends tosubscribe to the same pattern. In this issue, we wanted to center marginalized institutionalcontexts; not to consider them as “others” or “outside” of the norm but as unique enti-ties with special contributions to offer. This approach presents opportunities for advancingracial equity in postsecondary leadership education, which, in turn, fosters a more holisticunderstanding of what leadership is and can be (Collins, 2019; Dugan et al. 2011; Guthrieet al., 2018; Wakefield & Bunker, 2010).

As we presented in the Editors’ notes, we recruited authors that could tell the story ofthe different types of institutions, explain their programs, and talk about examples of pro-grams occurring at these campuses. We purposefully selected authors to represent diverseidentities, backgrounds, locations, and experiences in an effort to reflect the contempo-rary landscape of leadership education in United States. We hoped to examine the extent towhich leadership program offerings at these various kinds of institutions currently addressthe unique needs of their racially minoritized student populations. In the end, we soughtto provide a resource for leadership educators and catalyze new research directions in thefield.

CRAFTING THE COMPOSITION

Initially, article authors were asked to adhere to a predetermined outline to present theirwork. However, it soon became clear that the importance of allowing the authors to arrangetheir compositions for the best outcome of their story was more important to the goalsof the issue than presenting information in a way that we, as editors, envisioned. It wasimportant for the voice of the authors and the institutional type to prevail.

The final form of the articles presented throughout this issue are now much more inter-esting, they have voice, and each article was able to present essentially those same 12notes in ways that highlighted their piece of the entire concert. What we present in thisconcluding article are the connections between institutional type, the theories they tendtoward, programmatic influence and options, and how identity seemed to work as a themethrough each. In most cases, the student identity and institutional mission are direct over-lays. Finally, we observed the modality and delivery of leadership education and develop-ment across each institutional setting through a variety of programs.

ARRANGING THE PIECES

The first article set the tone of why we are looking at institutional type, the leadership edu-cation fit, and how attending to racial equity enhances leadership. Inclusion is not a tech-nique or something that one DOES TO leadership – it transcends leadership, it is leadership.The many adages, mantras, pithy sayings one could use to describe a team or a functioninggroup are all for naught if the team is not inclusive of all involved.

The second article provided an overview of how higher education evolved, where it isright now, and where it is going. This article provided an overview to support the furtherexplanation of history and context within each article. This article contextualized and syn-thesized the general view of higher education to support the work of the articles.

To further examine what comes from the core articles on institutions by type, wedeveloped the following schema. With leadership, leadership education, and leader-ship development in the center, we can see how four larger areas are unique in someways, similar in others, and in some areas, they complement and support each other.Figure 1 provides a visual for how we are arranging the information. The four circles

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F I G U R E 1 Four components of leadership education

represent type, theory, program, and identity. The diamond shape in the center isleadership/development/education. The following sections will explore each of the areasin more detail.

INSTITUTIONAL TYPE

The types of institutions included in this issue were predominantly identity-based typolo-gies with women’s colleges, historically Black colleges and universities (HBCU), tribal col-leges and universities (TCU), Hispanic serving institutions (SHSI), Asian American NativeAmerican and Pacific Islander serving institutions (AANAPISI), and faith-based (which mayor may not be considered as an identity). Also important in the conversation were commu-nity colleges and graduate or professional schools. Many of the articles note leadership andeducating leaders as part of their institutional mission. As noted, the acknowledgment of amission to educate future leaders spanned all types of institutions including: faith-based,community colleges, women’s college, and HBCUs. Also noted in many of the institutionaltypes was the dearth of research regarding the student populations’ leadership educationand outcomes.

The HBCU institutions are probably the most well-known and discussed in the literature.The HSI and AANAPISI designations are dependent on enrollment and may not attend tostudent needs. The TCU institutions have a 51% student population designation as well,but they are tied to location and connections to Tribal affiliations. In some cases, HBCUshave a historical affiliation, but now have a predominantly White population. A similarsituation has occurred with women’s colleges allowing men’s enrollment in evening andspecial programs. In our selection of institutional types, we narrowed the field of privateliberal arts colleges to the smaller set of women’s colleges. Over the years, and for survival,some women’s colleges opened their enrollment to men as well. Faith-based institutionsare some of the oldest in the country and higher education was the purview of differentdenominations in the beginning. Due to enrollment concerns, most of these colleges haveopened their enrollment to nonmembers and are co-educational as well. The communitycollege type is particularly interesting due to the multiplicity of pathways offered withintheir institutions. The community college helps with access to higher education for some,workforce development, and professional development. In some cases, the high schoolconnections are as important as the college connections with the community college help-ing on both sides. Finally, the needs of graduate and professional schools with regard toleadership are addressed as an institutional type. This type is vast and a short article inthis issue only provides a small glimpse into all the graduate programs available. This issuefocuses on the professional schools and how the involvement of leadership, or some referto the soft skills, as an area of expanding interest in those curricula.

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USE OF THEORIES

“There is nothing more practical than a good theory” (Lewin, 1952, p. 161). We know theo-ries help us predict, explain, describe, and control (Dugan, 2017; Northouse, 2019). The useof theory within the learning environment provides a proven track to construct the learn-ing experience (Dugan, 2017; Fried, 2012; Richlin, 2006). Learning occurs not only fromthe experience that engages the learner to move forward, but through the application of asolid theory to guide such interactions and learning engagements (Kolb, 2015). Each of theinstitutional types address how leadership is constructed and presented to their students.In most cases, activism for social change is a desired outcome of the leadership experience(Guthrie & Jenkins, 2018). In many cases in this issue, the approaches presented are basedon theories of leadership and/or leader development. The social change model for leader-ship development (SCM; HERI, 1996) was presented by faith-based, HBCU, and AANAPISIinstitutions. The socially responsible leadership scale (SRLS), which served as a foundationfor the original SCM, was also cited as a guide for leadership education in HBCUs. Duganet al. (2011) presented solid reasons why and how the SCM and SRLS was useful in buildingstudent leadership capacity. Faith-based institutions included the Leadership Challenge asan additional transformational leadership theory that was often coupled with Strength-sQuest in programs and varying modalities. The AANAPISI article connected their findingsto the community cultural wealth theory (Yosso, 2005) to build on the social change model.Professional schools presented the highest number of leadership theories in the delivery oftheir programs and outcomes. They cited adaptive leadership, transformational, servantleadership, and team leadership. These theories support the medical team need for collab-oration and working together. The medical origins of adaptive leadership seem to supportthis connection as well.

Due to the limited research within the community college literature on student lead-ership development, the authors pulled from administrative and presidential leadershipmodels in order to present their findings. More will be discussed in the program sectionabout the leadership competencies approach in community colleges.

The HSI article combined leadership theories with more of the identity approach. Latinoleadership (Bordas, 2013) was identified as a leadership theory for this identity-based type.The leadership identity development (LID) model (Komives et al., 2005) was also identifiedas a guiding theory. Women’s colleges identified feminist theories and transformationalleadership as a key component in their theoretical mix. The author highlighted contempo-rary leadership theories have been more similar to longstanding women’s ways of knowing(Gilligan, 1993), and the others were now starting to acknowledge this influence. The TribalColleges and Universities (TCUs) attributed their leadership work to a more holistic NativeAmerican lived experience and their own tribal sovereignty. The Native nation-buildingmodel built on the Indigenous knowledge systems and their identity as a student, a leader,and a member of their individual tribes (Brayboy et al., 2012). These latter discussed insti-tutional types highlight the overlap between the theory circle in our model (Figure 1) andthe identity circle.

IDENTITY AND THE STUDENT LEADER

Many of the theories described above highlight and center on the identity and the self-awareness of the individual. While some associate with the social change model of lead-ership development (SCM: HERI, 1996) directly, it is safe to say all of them ascribe to theimportance of helping the student understand who they are on a number of levels. A leader

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arrives into a leadership experience or position with all of their lived experience and theirindividual worldview (Kolb, 2015; Peterson & Kolb, 2017; Van Knippenberg et al., 2004). Theformation of students in many of the institutional types help them understand themselves,their gender, their ethnicity, and their tribal affiliations (Van Knippenberg et al., 2004; Whit-ney, 2011). This concept of “I” and “we” is more of a both/and approach than either “me”or “we” (Bordas, 2012). A “we” culture does not subsume the person, it is inclusive of theperson, of all persons. An approach for the benefit of the whole over the needs of just oneuplifts the benefit for all. Bordas (2012) asserts, “We cultures center on people,” which isthe both/and of the leadership experience (p. 47). By educating and developing the leader-ship of the individuals within all of the institutional types, we are helping to encourage andbuild the individual for their benefit on an incremental basis and for the whole. The cultureshapes one’s attitudes, values, and beliefs; it is how the individual defines their reality, andtheir leadership.

This lived experience of the TCU student to the understanding of their own self-efficacyof Women’s college students and HSI students is the experience of learning and growing(Kolb, 2015; Peterson & Kolb, 2017; Van Knippenberg et al., 2004). The AANAPISI articlereified that current leadership theories can be confusing for their students due to the pri-mary position of the individual in western leadership. The AAPI culture sense of identityis more focused on the we and less on the me. We live in a world of what is happeningnow (i.e., on the dance floor) and how we need to be prepared for what could happen (i.e.,from the balcony; Heifetz et al., 2009). One interesting note on identity in the women’s col-lege article was how the identity of the woman is a big part of their experience and notoverly highlighted as an issue when the colleges were all-women populations. When menentered, the identity of the women became more gendered and the whole seemed to adopta newly skewed view or roles and majors based on gendered roles. Whether the identityfocus was on the individual and/or their position and affinity for their respective groups,the overlap between the identity and the programmatic approaches of these institutionaltypes connects how they were teaching and developing leaders (Day et al., 2009). The pro-grams within the HBCU institutions acknowledge a point connects all the types, the maximis meet them where they are.

PROGRAMS AND LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

The articles all specified that leadership programs were experiential in nature. This learn-ing through engagement is a primary goal of the program development literature for stu-dent affairs (Aiken-Wisniewski et al., 2020). Again, we see leadership was a space usingexperiential learning to engage students in the leadership environment (Fried, 2012; Kolb,2015; Petersen & Kolb, 2017). The overlap between the theory circle and the program cir-cles (Figure 1) is how the theories are guiding and using the theories of practice for eachof the types. The faith-based institutions highlight programs that were learner centered(the individual identity), while also attending to their theories (strengths and the SCM).The women’s colleges were connecting the individual identity to their skills and theo-ries in of the SCM and feminist theories. HBCUs talked about the holistic approach (e.g.,SCM) with the consciousness of self, citizenship, and the connections made in the genera-tional connections of alumni/ae and their students. The Black Greek Letter Organizationsreported a higher percentage of their program students were engaged on campus. Theyalso connected the individual with the collective and their culture in identity and the pro-gram sphere. The TCU students were learning about themselves in the various programswhile also learning about their collective and the Tribal affiliations. This formation as an

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individual leader also helped to secure the future of the Tribe though majors, Indigenousknowledge, and inter-tribal congress collaboration. The HSI programs connected theirlarger associations with the individual student, and the campus. The “excelencia” pro-gram used a success model to build and guide the Latinx student leaders. Their identitymodels of mentoring and community engagement helped the student enter their lead-ership roles to learn the process and contribute to the greater good. The AANAPISI stu-dents were connected to the larger community and engaged in AAPI issues and programsto expand their work for the collective and promote more leaders within their institu-tional type. The AANAPISI programs worked on coaching, mentoring, skills, and leaderconfidence. One of their programs reported they were there to build confidence. Thegraduate and professional school programs were constructed at a different point of viewbased on the lived experience of their students (Fried, 2012; Kolb, 2015; Peterson & Kolb,2017). Using an andragogical approach, their programs were also experiential, becausethey were often working with adult students who may have more work and off campusexperience.

The community college authors approached the program section of their work here a bitdifferently. They report there are fewer student programs to highlight and present in theirarticle. There are a number of programs offered for the community college administratorsand presidents. Using these programs as a guide, they provided a model that can be utilizedby community college campuses. They have taken the multiplicity of pathways to successand degrees to build a holistic program. Using a concept of stackable pathways to illustratetheir own program, they showed how the model they posited can be used in academicdegrees, workplace development, and certification programs. This model is a new additionto the literature complements the other Community College models and programs alreadyin existence.

IN THE KEY OF LEADERSHIP

The center of our model is leadership, more distinctly in our work here is leadership devel-opment and education. The manner we teach leadership by institutional type includes thetheories as guides and models for the framework. The identity of those in process (the stu-dents) is created and influenced through the ethos of the place or context in which the edu-cation occurs. The formation of one’s identity is through the lens of the place (institution)within the type (of institution) for the benefit of both the greater group and the individ-ual. Finally, the experience of the programs is how one engages in and has the ability tobecome part of the process and the learning of leadership. Leadership, at the core, is aboutinclusion and how people experience it (Ferdman, 2014). The experience is at the individ-ual level, but it happens with the context of a larger group or community, for the positivegrowth of all involved. The practices, collective norms, and shared values operate at boththe societal context and the individual striving to make a positive change (Ferdman, 2014;HERI, 1996).

If leadership is not inclusive and does not attend to all involved at multiple levels, it is notleadership. To be real, to be relational, and to effect change, the answer is inclusive lead-ership. This practice connects everyone, and allows everyONE to have a voice, connect,belong, and contribute (Ferdman, 2014). The attitudes, values, and beliefs each brings isjust as important as their strengths, talents, and skills. Inclusivity is more than a compe-tency with measured outcomes and objectives.

Inclusive leadership allows one to simultaneously be an insider within the groupand define the group itself. In the process of forming, storming, norming, performing

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(Tuckman, 1965), we add the primary step of including and an additional step of trans-forming. Inclusive leadership is about accepting ALL of the members as primary and form-ing with multiple viewpoints, to allow for the civil storming that will undoubtedly occur ina group of committed leaders. Without storming, we have apathy and avoidance, neitherof which are helpful in any leadership paradigm. Norming at a higher level of inclusiv-ity, equity, and the many levels of diversity adds to the whole culture, and each person.Through this level of performing, we can transform the group, the actions, the communityand the purpose for joining together in the first place. Without inclusive leadership andmanaging the boundaries together, we have no leadership (Ferdman, 2014).

FUTURE RESEARCH

Leadership educators, scholars, researchers, practitioners and writers need to expandtheir work within and between all types of institutions. The Multi-institutional Study ofLeadership (MSL) has set the stage over the last 15 years to study leadership on manycampuses. Contributing to the body of knowledge is required at many levels within theacademy and higher education. Most of the articles report the dearth of research in theirareas. The community college article presented a new model based on complementarymodes of leadership development. This model can be used, and modified to fit differ-ent campus settings, student demographics, and type. Scholars and practitioners canform research teams to study best practices, programmatic outcomes, leadership devel-opment, and the evolving identity of their students and their leadership. One area ripefor research is testing the seeming cannon of leadership theory on various campusesand with many student populations to understand if they are one size fits all. In manycases, new theories and models may evolve and help us understand and expand our studyof leadership as well as new and improved ways to understand and develop inclusiveleadership.

CAN YOU HEAR THE MUSIC?

In our editors’ notes, we explained the intent in this issue is to bring together how leader-ship education connects to institutional type while at the same time weaving racial equityand inclusion into the conversation. We defined inclusive leadership as what it means tobe an insider in a work group or organization; as something that allows everyone acrossmultiple types of differences, to participate, contribute, have a voice, and feel they are con-nected and belong, all without losing individual uniqueness or having to give up valuableidentities or aspects of themselves. The articles are presented to bring voice to the manyinstitutional types are teaching leadership and developing leaders. This intent was to inter-rupt the norm that research on campus just means the predominantly White large state andprivate schools.

“Can you hear the music?” Ask a composer or a conductor while they are looking at a fullscore for an orchestra if they can hear it. Their answer will be an obvious yes. This score(referred to as the literature) can be on larger paper, and shows the role of each instrument.In all those lines, symbols, numbers, fractions, spaces, steps, and dots they can hear whatis happening. Each chair of each instrument of each section of each instrument type foreach setting adds to this sound. Without both the individual within the larger organizationand the coordination of the whole Jon Batiste could not have won an award. Of the manyinstruments in the orchestra, they all use the same twelve notes.

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A U T H O R B I O G R A P H I E S

Rich Whitney is an associate professor and chair of the organizational leadership doc-toral program in the LaFetra College of Education at the University of La Verne. Richteaches classes in personal leadership, leadership theory, team dynamics, and programdevelopment.

Jasmine D. Collins is an assistant professor in the Agricultural Leadership, Education,and Communications Program at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Herwork focuses on shifting the field of leadership education toward critical conversationsof power, justice, and equity in an effort to help educators and educational leaders cul-tivate and sustain inclusive learning environments to support marginalized students intheir development.

How to cite this article: Whitney, R., & Collins, J. D. (2021). Composing leadershipeducation by institutional type. In R. Whitney & J. D. Collins (Eds.). New Directionsfor Student Leadership: No. 171. Advancing racial equity in leadership education:Centering marginalized institutional contexts (pp. 123–131). Wiley.https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20462

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