Answer

Biology 102: Anatomy and Physiology

1. Define anatomy and physiology.

My Response

Anatomy is defined as the study of the structures and associations of various structures in the human body while, physiology is the study of how individual parts or various parts of the human body function together. Besides physiology aims to study the function of the human body as a whole (Marieb & Hoehn, 2019).

1. Describe macroscopic and microscopic anatomy.

My Response

Microscopic anatomy is defined as the study of minute anatomical structures of the body on the microscopic scale. It includes the study of tissues (histology) and the study of cells (cytology). On the other hand, macroscopic anatomy is defined as the study of anatomical characteristics that are visible to the naked eye, for example, external features and internal organs (Libre Texts Libraries, 2020).

1. Explain the relationship between structure and function.

My Response

There are significant associations between structure and function of cells, tissues, organs, and the body as a whole. Different structures are designed to suit their functions. In that case structural damages or malformations is almost always associated with loss of function. For example, morphological changes to the retinal nerve fiber and the optic nerve results in loss of visual function (Chu et al., 2018).

1. Describe various types of cells in the human body and explain the basic principles of the cell theory.

My Response

There are more than 200 different types of cells in the human body. Each cell is specialized to perform a specific function. Some of the cell types include stem cells, erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, nerve cells, muscle cells, cartilage cells, bone cells, skin cells, endothelial cells, epithelial cells, fat cells, and sex cells (Baxter, 2020). Cell theory affirms that living things consist of one or more cells, and the cell is the basic unit of life as well as stating that cells arise from existing cells (Libre Texts Libraries, 2020_a).

1. Define histology.

My Response

Histology is defined as the study of tissues (Libre Texts Libraries, 2020).

1. Identify the 11 organ systems, provide two functions for each system and two related organs in each system.

My Response

Table 1: Organ systems (FlexBooks, 2018)

1. Explain the concept of homeostasis.

My Response

Homeostasis is the general principle, which safeguards the stability of artificial and the natural systems, where stability is maintenance of robustness against external perturbations. It also refers to the ability of an organism to maintain its internal body environment within the normal range that allow survival (Fink, 2016). 

1. Describe the processes of negative feedback and positive feedback in maintaining homeostasis and provide examples of each.

My Response

Negative feedback mechanism tend to counteract the changes for example reducing the temperature to the normal range while positive feedback mechanism tend to increase the change above the set point for example secretion oxytocin during the birth process (Khan Academy, 2021).

1. Use correct anatomical terms to describe systemic and regional anatomy. Provide 3 examples.

My Response

Anatomical regions define the areas of the human body using body landmarks. Landmarks are provided by body parts that are easily visible or palpable. Major regions include the neck, head, thorax, pelvis, abdomen, upper extremity, and lower extremity. Organ systems include the nervous, respiratory, circulatory, and the endocrine system (Marieb & Hoehn, 2019).

1. Use correct directional terms and sectional planes to describe relative positions and relationships among body parts. Provide 4 examples.

My Response

Posterior – direction towards the back or the back. For example, the cornea of the eye is posterior to the pupil (Marieb & Hoehn, 2019).

Anterior – direction toward the front or the front of the body. For example, the pupil is anterior to the cornea (Marieb & Hoehn, 2019).

Superior – above or higher position. For example, the head is superior to the neck (Marieb & Hoehn, 2019).

Inferior – below or lower than another body part. For example, the testes are inferior to the urinary bladder (Marieb & Hoehn, 2019).

Lateral – side of the body or towards the side of the body. For example, the thumb is lateral to the digits (Marieb & Hoehn, 2019).

1. Identify the major body cavities and subdivisions of each.

My Response

The ventral (anterior) cavity and the dorsal (posterior) cavity are the two major separate compartments in the body. The ventral cavity is subdivided into the abdominopelvic and thoracic cavities while the dorsal cavity is subdivided into the spinal and the cranial cavity (Marieb & Hoehn, 2019).

1. Describe the membranes that divide the body cavities and subdivisions, the organs that they accommodate, and the organs that belong to each of the major body cavities.

My Response

Serous membrane is a thin membrane that cover the organs and walls of the abdominopelvic and thoracic cavities. The parietal layers convers the walls of the body cavity while the visceral layer covers organs such as the hear. The pleura encloses the pleural cavity consisting of the lungs. The pericardium covers the heart. The peritoneum covers various organs in the abdominal and pelvic cavity such as the pancreas, liver, and urinary bladder (Marieb & Hoehn, 2019).

1. Explain how the chemical properties of water affect the solubility of inorganic and organic molecules and how this is so important to live.

My Response

Water is a polar molecule and is a major solvent for polar substances but does not dissolve non-polar substance. Water performs important biological functions such as temperature distribution and control, removal of wastes, and a polar solvent in the body. It also takes part in metabolic processes (Mishchuk & Goncharuk, 2017).

1. Discuss the importance of pH and the role of buffers in body fluids and why this is such an important concept to understand for human life.

My Response

Every biological system comprises of a buffer system that maintain the acid-base balance at a specific pH. Various enzymes may function at a particular pH and changes in pH may impair their function. The buffering systems helps to maintain pH of body fluids including blood within a narrow range of pH 7.35 and 7.45. A buffer is described as a substance the hinders radical change in the pH of body fluid by absorbing excess hydroxyl ions or hydrogen ions (Surber, Abels, & Maibach, 2018).

1. List and discuss the four major macromolecules, their structure characteristics, their functions, and provide examples of each all pertaining to the human body. (hint: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, ATP, DNA, RNA)

My Response

Proteins – is made by amino acids such as glycine and methionine. Examples of proteins include some hormones and enzymes. Functions of proteins include control of colloid pressure and growth of the body (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

Lipids – are made from fatty acids and glycerol.  Example include cholesterol and butter. Functions of lipid include synthesis of some hormone and insulation of the body (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

Carbohydrates – are made from monosaccharides such as sucrose and glucose. Examples of carbohydrates include glucose and start. Functions include source of energy and structural functions (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

Nucleic acids – formed from a pentose sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogenous base. Examples include RNA and DNA. Functions include carrying of genetic information and control of almost all processes in the cell (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

1. What is an enzyme? Explain the importance of enzyme function in the body.

My Response

An enzyme is typically a protein that increases the rate of almost all chemical reactions in the body. Enzyme function is important in the body since enzyme deficiencies can lead to deficiencies of the substances that are being metabolized or disease (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

1. List the basic steps of protein synthesis and explain where each step occurs in the cell.

My Response

Some of the basic steps in protein synthesis include transcription and the translocation process that consist of the initiation, elongation and the termination phase. Transcription involves copying of the DNA information into RNA and occurs in the nucleus. Translation process occurs in the cytoplasm; particularly, in the rough endoplasmic reticulum (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

1. List all structures of an animal cell, provide a function for each region/structure of a cell. Points will be determined by the completeness of this answer.

My Response

Nucleus – contain the genetic information and controls all the functions of the cell (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

Cell membrane – selectively permeable and controls what enters or leaves the cell (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

Receptors – cellular stimulation and binding to antigens. Facilitates phagocytosis (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

Cytoplasm – surrounds the nucleus and contains organelles such as rough endoplasmic reticulum (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

Lysosomes and peroxisomes – contain lytic enzymes (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

Cytoskeleton – provide scaffolding framework for the cell (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

Endoplasmic reticulum – processing and transport of molecules to their final destinations (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

Golgi apparatus – packaging of molecules or cellular products (Nelson & Cox, 2017).\

Mitochondria – energy powerhouse of the cell (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

1. Describe the process of mitosis and the cell life cycle.

My Response

Mitosis is the process in which one cell divides into two. The parent cell often divided into two daughter cells. Mitosis is divided into five phases: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During interphase, involves copying of chromosomes into two identical sets. Microtubules then extend from two centrosomes on opposite poles. Prophase involves condensation of chromosomes and pairing up. The phase is also characterized by dissolution of the nuclear membrane. Metaphase involve lining up of the chromosome at the equator of the cells and attachment of the spindle fibers to the sister chromatids. Anaphase involve pulling apart of sister chromatids by the mitotic spindle. The last phase, telophase involve separation of two daughter cells (Nelson & Cox, 2017).

1. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis. “This question may require you to look outside this chapter”

My Response

Table 2: Mitosis and Meiosis (Nelson & Cox, 2017)