Answer

Abstract

This study aimed at investigating the influence of media on childhood obesity. Systematic review was adopted whereby the search for the articles was done in five prominent academic databases including Cochrane, Google Scholar, Ebsco, ScienceDirect, and Medline. 13 articles were reviewed in the study. The findings of the study showed that the negative influence of media on childhood obesity exists in exposure of children risk factors for obesity such reducing physical activity of children, limiting kids’ sleep duration, and exposure of children to ads that encourage consumption of unhealthy foods.

In relation to positive influence of media, the study outcomes reveal the media offers an avenue for creating awareness about childhood obesity by allowing for the conveyance of vital health information about this condition. In relation to the comparison of UK and U.S, the study outcomes reveal that the two countries compare to each other in the sense that, in both counties, the media contributes to childhood obesity by promoting obesity risk factors like consumption of unhealthy foods, limited physical activity, and short sleep duration. 

In relation to strategies for addressing negative media influences on childhood obesity, the some of the strategies that were revealed by the outcomes of the study were promotional re-contextualization of provocative message to promote negative persuasion concerning actions or foods that may enhance the development childhood obesity, creation of supportive settings or situations for healthy eating and physical activity,  and government control of marketing actions for unhealthy foods, using media outlets in creating childhood obesity awareness among kids and parents. The paper recommends the adoption of these approaches in order to curb the issue of childhood obesity in UK.

 

Acknowledgement

My sincere gratitude goes to the almighty God for the care He has given me. I would also wish to appreciate my dear parents for sponsoring my education up to this level. More gratitude goes to my project supervisor, (Insert Supervisor’s names), for his guidance and support in the success of this project. Special thanks also go to all my friends for their support

 

 

 

 

 

 

Contents

CHAPTER ONE.. 4

1.0 Introduction. 4

1.1 Problem Statement. 4

1.2 Research Objectives. 5

1.2.1 Primary Research Objective. 5

1.2.2 Secondary Research Objective. 6

CHAPTER TWO.. 7

2.0 Literature Review.. 7

2.1 Types of Media and Preferences. 7

2.2 Media Influence Theories. 8

2.3 Framing the Issue-Childhood Obesity. 10

2.4 New Media Effects on Childhood Obesity. 11

CHAPTER THREE.. 15

3.0 Materials and Methods. 15

CHAPTER FOUR.. 16

4.0 Results/Findings. 16

4.1 Negative Influences of Media on Childhood Obesity. 16

4.2 Positive Influences of Media on Childhood Obesity. 19

4.3 Strategies for Limiting Negative Influences of Media on Childhood Obesity. 19

4.4 Comparison of Media Influence on Obesity in the UK and other Countries such as the U.S. 21

CHAPTER FIVE.. 22

5.0 Discussion. 22

5.1 Negative Influences Media on Childhood Obesity. 22

5.2 Positive Effects of Media in Relation to Childhood Obesity. 22

5.3 Strategies for Addressing Negative Influences of Media in Relation to Childhood Obesity. 23

5.4 Comparison of Media Influence on Obesity in the UK and other Countries such as the U.S. 23

CHAPTER SIX.. 24

6.0 Primary Data Analysis and Arguments for and Arguments against Media. 24

6.1 Primary Data Analysis. 24

6.2 Arguments for and Arguments against Media. 24

CHAPTER SEVEN.. 26

7.0 Conclusions. 26

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

Childhood obesity or increase in body fat to levels that would affect normal functioning of a child’s body is at the highest levels in the 21^st century. According to the World Health Organization, 2016 had the highest population of obese children, 10 times more than it was, 40 years ago (Reuters, 2017). This represents about 110 million obese children. Moving into 2017, the 2016 levels of obesity will be surpassed and this is likely to worsen the public health burden globally since another 213 million children globally were considered overweight (Reuters, 2017). Although being overweight means a manageable increase in body fats, chances of becoming obese are normally high when one is overweight. Accordingly, in 2017, it is expected that the number of obese children will rise unless urgent critical actions are taken. In the UK, childhood obesity statistics are as follows: in a 2015 to 2016 study, 9.3% of children between the ages of 4 and 5 years at primary reception class were obese (an increase from 9.1%); 19.8% of children between 10 and 11 years at their last primary school year were obese (an increase from 19.1%); and overall, there are more obese boys than girls in the UK (Campbell, 2016).

Just like at the global level as noted by WHO, obesity levels among children in the UK are highest among deprived families compared to the least deprived or privileged families (Reuters, 2017, Campbell, 2016). Regardless of the prevalence among families, obesity can lead to several conditions like cardiovascular diseases, asthma, cancer, diabetes, among others (UK Government, 2015). Its causes also vary within populations and these include: genetic compositions, socioeconomic status, family activities and behaviors, social programs and most recently, advertising (Sahoo et al, 2015, Veerman et al, 2015). Advertising is the use of either audio or visual media to create awareness about a product or service (Veerman et al, 2015). In the UK, there are numerous advertising policies that guide how media companies can package their information. For instance, in 2016, a ban scheduled to take effect on 2017 noted that all online and local broadcast media are not allowed to advertise any “food and drink high in fat, salt or sugar” (HFSS) (Clarke, 2016, par 2). This policy was expected to reduce the attraction to junk food among children and teenagers. This study will therefore evaluate the impact of visual and other forms of media to childhood obesity. With governments realizing the need to control the manner in which advertisements are being packaged, it is clear that the media has a strong influence and thus, this study seeks to note this influence and explore ways in which media can be improved in the struggle to reduce childhood obesity.

1.1 Problem Statement

Childhood obesity has become a public health issue globally and the WHO continues to warn that the issue is likely to increase the costs of healthcare in future. Even as countries develop policies towards taming the rising number of obese and overweight children, the role of the media remains a contentious issue. Whereas media houses and companies acknowledge that childhood obesity is major issue that has to be handled urgently, some still feel that advertising junk foods and drinks does not have a major impact compared to the lifestyles and feeding behaviors within families. In 10-year study (2000 to 2009) to understand how framing of news stories affected childhood obesity in the US, Barry et al (2011) established that for the early years of the study, news stories mainly associated causes of childhood obesity to food and drinks industries and towards the last years of the study, the news stories focused on solutions to childhood obesity. Among the suggested solutions was the need to change behaviors within systems like the learning institutions and in the food and drinks manufacturing industries (Barry et al, 2011). Studies on childhood obesity initiatives after 2009 illustrate a change in feeding diets where institutions such as the US government began monitoring student diets in foods offered during lunch breaks in schools while beverage and fast food companies began enlisting nutrient contents of their products on their packages so that people are more aware of the contents of their foods. This last initiative was specifically critical towards guiding parents into noting the nutrient intakes of their children, thus, guiding their decisions on what foods are healthy to their children.

In another UK study, Hilton, Patterson and Teyhan (2012) posit that the focus while reporting by UK media houses has shifted from individual reporting to societal reporting, where, solutions being considered are not only about personal changes in lifestyle but regulatory changes for the entire community. In this approach, and based on the influence of the media in influencing societal opinions, Hilton, Patterson and Teyhan (2012) feel that regulators in the UK have an urgent task of developing regulations to guide the shared ideologies in the topic of childhood obesity. Meanwhile, Clarke (2016) notes that junk foods, drinks and lifestyle images and advertisements have continued to be shared widely through UK and global media. As a source of revenue to the media houses, the advertisements have been narrowed down to even target children and teenagers in popular platforms like online social sites. Such targeted advertisements earn money for the institutions but put children at the continued risk of obesity, especially when considering the fact that they reach children through platforms in which few adults, specifically their parents, frequent. Such approaches are likely to reduce the positive impacts of the initially developed measures to manage obesity as influenced by the media.

Evidently, the media has an impact on childhood obesity as noted through its framing of news stories and presentation or targeting of markets through its advertisements. In most of the arguments presented, it is clear that the media has a strong impact to societal habits and perceptions and thus, has to be monitored towards controlling specific outcomes. In contrast, the media itself can promote specific agendas towards improving people’s welfare by focusing on unhealthy issues, therefore; regulation has to guide emphasis on these good influencers. For instance, through the media, the discussion on childhood obesity can be restructured to support proper behaviors. This study therefore seeks to explore further on these influences of the media to childhood obesity leading to possible solutions on how current advertisements, discussions and topics depicted through the media can influence a reduction in obesity levels among children.

1.2 Research Objectives

This study aims to address the following research objectives

1.2.1 Primary Research Objective

• How does the media influence childhood obesity?

1.2.2 Secondary Research Objective

• What are positive influences of media on childhood obesity?
• What are negative influences of media on childhood obesity?
• What are the strategies of addressing the negative influences of media on childhood obesity?
• How does the media influence on childhood obesity in the UK compare to other nations such as the U.S?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Types of Media and Preferences

Media is a collective term used to describe the different source of information and platforms for sharing available in the world today. These include: print media such as books and newspapers, internet, social platforms such as Facebook and Twitter, Television, radio among others. All these forms of media are accessible to children in the 21st century but Qian and Clark (2016) feel that the internet and video games are the most popular forms of media among children globally. This young generation is highly attracted to visual media with interactive capabilities and thus, the internet and video games are popular among children. The internet as a form of media offers numerous opportunities not only to share but also access information and in recent cases; emotional support since parents are also more pre-occupied with their occupations to effectively fulfill parenting roles. In a study by Wartella et al (2013), it was also noted that parents are increasingly being distracted by the different forms of media, just like their children. This study established that parents, especially mothers, spend more time watching television per day and those with babies would prefer leaving televisions on to distract their children when awake. The media is therefore becoming a critical part of daily activities across families globally and its content is likely to influence different emphasis across populations.

For the male parent, television remains the most popular form of media. This is guided by the findings by Wartella et al (2013), that men prefer watching television as much as women and in most families where both parents exist, watching television is the most popular way of bonding. In the UK, Ofcom (2017) noted that 9 out of 10 adults in the UK watch television either alone or as a family with 74% of this population admitting to using catch-up television to sustain their binge-watching behaviors. Binge-watching is a popular term used to describe the obsessive or uncontrolled habit of watching. Having noticed these differences in the usage of different forms of media within populations, media content producers are using different advertisements and content for different media. For instance, the advertisement of junk foods is increasingly becoming prevalent in social media platforms which are popular among children between the ages of 6 and 16 years (Clarke, 2016). Similarly, beverage and alcohol advertisements are displayed between sporting shows and events in order to attract men as they are the popular audience for sporting events and main targets for alcohol sellers (Zerhouni et al, 2016). Although it is arguable that these are typical marketing initiatives as guided by the marketing policies, media institutions have their own goals since they understand their impact in societies. Notably, research on discussions held in various media platforms illustrated that these media institutions would package issues in a manner that they would want their audience to perceive as the reality of the issue. In most cases, the media fails to be impartial and thus, will always hold a position that they will believe to be the most popular or admissible to the society.

2.2 Media Influence Theories

There are numerous theories that explain how the media influences populations across the world. These theories are as explained:

Direct Effects Theory

Neuendorf and Jeffres (2017) note that this was one of the earliest theories which was founded on the belief that people were most likely to accept whatever information they accessed and take actions that would reflect the perceptions they created. In this theory, the audience does not think critically about the message as they are listening passively. Whatever is popular stands as the reality of the population. Unlike an active audience that listens and decides what to believe and what not to consider within the information (Khan, 2017), the passive audience simply creates their own realities from any information. The direct effect theory is widely popular in political atmosphere where issues given more attention in media tend to be considered the most critical issues in the political landscape. For instance, by discussing the economic state of affairs in a region and even engaging political leaders in economic based debates, people within the population are likely to consider the economy as the main issue that will have to be addressed by the person who will be elected. This clearly illustrates that the media emphasis on economy has directly set the agenda for the population and thus, this theory is called the direct effects theory. The direct effects theory was however disputed for lacking critical scientific backing and thus, new researches were conducted leading to the subsequent theories discussed in this section…

Cultivation Analysis

 In this theory, Potter (2014) notes that exposure to repetitive information through any media can lead to the creation of new perceptions that are basically illusionary and completely dissociated from the truth. This perception is also as a result of passive viewership or consumerism where the audience simply receives the message and does not analyze it critically. The new illusion becomes their perception of their world to the point that it affects their actions. For instance, by watching a lot of violent movies and documentaries, one may develop a perception that the world is a violent place and even live in constant fear or choose to associate with specific people they believe to be less violence (McKinley, 2013). Related to the research, continuous depictions of children eating junk foods through the media may influence a child into believing that they deserve such foods and if they are not provided with the foods, they fund ways of accessing them without their parents’ knowledge. Such thoughts and behaviors are cultivated and do not occur naturally. This is why the theory is referred to as the cultivation analysis theory. Notably, when determining whether the media is influencing specific perceptions in a society, to determine whether the cultivation theory led to the eventual behaviors, the cultural background of the population being investigated is evaluated to note the environment in which one has existed and how this has been changed by the media (McKinley, 2013).

Agenda Setting Theory

Just like in the direct effects theory where it was believed that by emphasizing on an issue, the public can develop a perception that the issue is real and most critical to their society; the agenda setting theory is also as a result of the media’s effort to focus the population on specific issues (Zhang, 2016). In agenda-setting, the media determines the issue that is considers critical to the public and give it adequate attention that the public continues to talk about these issues consistently in social gatherings and even demands action regarding the issue (Shafi, 2017). Critically, the media does not ask the public to give these issues, but instead, the media itself determines which of the issues within the public should be considered as critical. Zhang (2016) notes that the agenda-setting media can have a two-edge effect to the society: either they can spread unnecessary propaganda in favor of specific groups or can increase awareness about an issue and encourage the development of solutions through guiding the public into considering specific issues as critical to their populations. It is also unfortunate that when the media fails to popularize some agendas any further, the public may lose interest on the issue and the impacts of majoring on the issues are undermined.

The agenda setting theory also affects active audiences. This is because, despite setting the agenda, the media does not only presents issues to be considered but also use evidence from the society within which the audience exists. Unlike in the cultivation theory where the audience is mainly exposed to information from beyond, which may limit the audience’s ability to query the accuracy of the information, agenda setting focusses on the actual details and this makes it interesting to the active audience (Zhang, 2016, Shaffi, 2017). An active audience can query the information, and by relating it to their environment, can consider the issue critical and thus, joins in discussing the issue leading to quest for action. For instance, if a media house seeks to advance the issue that childhood obesity in the UK is mainly as a result of utilization of numerous ingredients that fail to support healthy diets, the public may be convinced to demand action against food companies that offer foods with high cholesterol levels. This is because such a population can evidently note the ingredients through food packages and develop a conviction that the industries are at fault. This agenda-setting approaches are also clear in the US where after conducting 10 year studies on media reporting on childhood obesity issues, the media set the agenda to focus on diet in institutions of learning and in president Obama’s leadership, a number of initiatives were set to improve children’s diets at school as this was considered the main issue in childhood obesity (Huber, 2012).

Symbolic Interactionism

Polk (2017) states that different societies have different symbols for which they associate with or would prefer being identified with. These socially constructed symbols can be used as the personal identity or guide towards how one reacts to others or thins they face in their lives. In this theory, Sedo (2013) notes that the media can be able to develop specific symbols within societies and use these symbols to guide person perceptions of self within the society. This is widely applicable in advertising where specific consumer habits and products have often been linked to specific socio-economic classes. The use of specific celebrities has also been used by the media to target specific populations and depict these people as the symbols for popular ideologies or products. This allows the manufacturer to capitalize on the fanaticism or symbolic following that comes with this public figure. For instance, in case, a brand like KFC seeks to promote their chicken steaks offered in buckets, they may consider using a celebrity like David Beckham and his entire family. Both children and adults may feel the need to consume KFC’s chicken steaks as a family meal. This theory is both effective to the active and passive audience as both of them have different symbols shared within their populations as a result of shared beliefs. Another simple illustration is that if the fries, burgers and coca cola soda combination is sold at a much cheaper price than when each of the items if bought individually, the public especially those in upper class levels may consider the combination a big save to their finances yet the intention is to promote consumption of the fast foods. 

Other theories

Another approach used by the media is allowing their audience to use more than one platform at a time in order to express themselves or even encourage discussion on an ongoing event in one of the media platform. According to Sundar and Limperos (2013), this is the uses and gratification theory. It is popular in live sports events where people interact through social media, increasing sports viewership and encouraging further talk about the game and the related brands. Finally, the spiral of silence as a theory states that the media has an impact towards directing public opinion and would maintain dominant opinions at the expense of the minority opinion (Donsbach, Tsfati & Salmon, 2014). Accordingly, those holding minority opinion would feel irrelevant and opt to remain silent since their opinions are unpopular. For instance, a group within a society may hold the opinion that parents are to blame for poor feeding habits among children but this information may be outweighed by the popular notion that exposure to junk foods is the main cause of childhood obesity. Although the argument on parents’ failure to watch their children’s diet may be a lead contributor, the media’s focus on junk food sold in institutions or around the children’s environments makes it the popular argument, affecting the ability to tackle the issue adequately.

2.3 Framing the Issue-Childhood Obesity

Barry, Brescoll and Gollust (2012), Saguy and Almeling (2008) and Gollust, Eboh and Barry (2012) admitted that there is a general tendency of news media to individual obesity issues through reporting. In such cases, the media focusses on an individual overweight or obese child and associate their condition to the victim’s genetic make-up (Barry, Brescoll & Gollust, 2012). Furthermore, when evaluating the possible causes of obesity within populations, Saguy and Almeling (2008) state that these media institutions tend to focus more on individual-blaming studies which either leads to stereotyping, stigmatization or perceptions that childhood obesity is mainly as a result of internal issues and not the external environmental issues. This biased framing of the issue affects the attitude towards the issue, especially among parents whose children are not mentioned in the study. Barry, Brescoll and Gollust (2013) add that the most unfortunate outcome is that these parents who are not mentioned in the study consider themselves as least vulnerable and would even ignore government or public policy set to prevent childhood obesity. Eventually, the struggle to control the epidemic is limited to the mentioned families and this undermines the efforts set towards controlling the condition. Successful policies will therefore depend on the ability of the policy makers to effectively engage the public through guiding the framing of the issues through both the media and the public (Gollust, Eboth & Barry, 2012, Barry, Brescoll & Gollust, 2013). Barry, Brescoll and Gollust (2013, p. 327) posit that other factors within the child’s environment such as “the neighborhood, economic (conditions), or food industry” factors have to be considered as well.

2.4 New Media Effects on Childhood Obesity

Studies have made significant steps in investigating the influences of media on childhood obesity. In a 2010 study by Straburger, Jordan and Donnerstein (2010), children spend an average of 7 hours of their waking time on television and related media. This is also attributed to the increase in the number of media devices and platforms; from the traditional television to video games, PCs and phones for which children are allowed to keep in their rooms.

More studies by Latner, Rosewall and Simmonds (2007) illustrate that more black children or those in minority groups across the world tend to spend more time using the different forms of media available to them. One of the main impacts of these levels of exposure has been the continued exposure to advertisements and other content that has led to poor feeding habits over time. However, continued preference for video games and sensitization on obesity have also led to continued stigmatization among peers as children liken the characters they see to their obese or overweight colleagues. This leads to both stigmatization and a continued sense of awareness among the children. However, the positive impacts of these media to childhood obesity can only be achieved if existing and new media are able to carefully structure their content to encourage constructive discussions and entertainment that promotes weight management. One such approach is the continued development of video games that engage the entire body in physical movements in order to let the body remain active.

In a different study executed by Heilmann et al. (2017), focused on the assessment of the longitudinal relationships between the use of screen-based media (having a television within the bedroom and computer and television hours) and fatness of the body among children within the U. Participants involved 12,556 children drawn from the UK Millennium Cohort Study and had been followed for 5 years, from the time they were aged 7 to their attainment of 11 years. The assessment of association was done between the use of screen-based media and outcomes such as Fat Mass Index (FMI), overweight, and Body Mass Index (BMI).  The outcomes of the study indicated that in completely adjusted frameworks, possessing a bedroom television at age 7 years is associated with significantly higher FMI and BMI (excess BMI for girls=0.57, 95% CI 0.31–0.84; excess BMI for boys=0.29, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.06–0.52; excess FMI for girls=0.39, 95% CI 0.21–0.57; excess FMI for boys=0.20, 95% CI 0.04–0.37), and having a high risk for being overweight (Relative risk for girls = 1.31, 95% CI 1.15–1.48; RR for boy = 1.21, 95% CI 1.07–1.36) at eleven years of age relative to lack of bedroom television. The findings of the study also showed that hours spent watching digital versatile disks or television were associated with high risk for overweight among girls alone. On the other hand, the study outcomes revealed that the use of computer at age 7 is not associated with alter body fatness. The authors concluded that having a television within the bedroom of the child is an independent risk factor for increased body fatness and overweight in the UK. The authors recommended child obesity prevention approaches that consider television within children bedrooms as obesity risk factor.

Robinson et al. (2015) examined the association between Obesity and exposure to screen media in adolescents and children. The outcomes of this study revealed that exposure to screen media result into obesity in adolescents and children via increased eating while watching. The authors established that watching screen media exposes children to low-nutrient, high-calorie food along with beverage marketing or promotions that influences the consumption habits, purchase requests, and preferences of children. The study outcomes also showed that watching television leads to reduced duration of sleep. The authors recommended the employment of interactive media in improving children’s physical activity and eating behaviours to reduce or prevent obesity.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (2011) executed a study that examined the obesity, adolescents, children, and the media. The author aimed to provide a clear comprehension of how media contributes to the childhood obesity development. The outcomes of this study revealed that screen time may substitute more active pursuits, adverts for fast food and junk foods increases the children’s demand for such products and foods, and television or movie watching increases snacking. The study findings also showed that late-night screen time interferes with a child’s having enough sleep, which is among the major risk factors for obesity. The author recommends the imposition of bans on fast food or junk food adverts within the television programming for children.

Whalen et al. (2018) investigated the health halo trend within the UK television food advertising or marketing watched by children by focusing the rise of explicit and implicit health messaging within the marketing of unhealthy foods. The authors coded and assessed beverage and food advertisements (n = 6664 in 2010, n = 18,888 in 2008) from the television channels in the UK that are famous among children. The study outcomes showed that the depiction of physical-activity revealed an 18.8% rise from 2008 (4.4 percent) to 2010 (23.2 percent). The study outcomes also showed that 81.1 percent of the food ads that contained the depiction of physical activity in 2010 were associated with non-core foods. Moreover, the findings revealed that the occurrence of health claims in food ad in 2010 rose by 4.1 % from 20.7% in 2008 to 24.8% in 2010, where most of the food ads that featured nutrition and health claims were associated with non-core foods (58.3 percent). Health associated appeals such as weight loss or diet, and health and nutrition were employed in 17.1 percent of food ads during peak child watching times, increasing to 33.0 percent of ads displayed on channels dedicated to children in 2010. The authors concluded that explicit (health claims) and implicit (physical activity) health messages are progressively prevalent within the UK TV food ads watched by children, and are often employed in promoting unhealthy foods. The authors recommend the consideration of amendments to the prevailing statutory approach with the aim of addressing this matter on the part of policy makers.

Harris et al. (2014) investigated the impact of unhealthy marketing of food on children’s health. The outcomes of the study revealed that the marketing of unhealthy food has negative impacts on the health and diets of children. The authors proposed that media and food companies should embrace self-regulation, as a mechanism of protecting children until age 14. The authors argued that parents would second such steps, and firms would prove that they are wholly dedicated to join efforts in addressing childhood obesity. The authors also recommended that local, state, and federal regulation of several, common practices associated with food marketing. In their study, Evans et al (2009) examined social marketing, social influences, and media opportunities associated with the prevention of childhood obesity. The outcomes of the study showed that media outlets sources such as radio and print can be employed in passing health information about childhood obesity and acquiring information concerning possible channels to reach children’s parents, which in turn contributes to the reduction or prevention of childhood obesity. The authors recommended that childhood obesity prevention or reduction strategies should focus on the promotion of health lifestyles.

Suziedelyte (2015) examined the impacts of old and novel media on the weight of children. The author employed panel and dynamic data models in investigating whether the rise of childhood obesity rates in several nations is attributed to the changes in the media exposure of children. The outcomes of the regression analysis reveal the use of computer or playing video game does not influence the body weight of a child. However, the outcomes of the study reveal that watching television may lead to a slight increase in the body weight of a child. In a different study Udell and Mehta (2008) examined newspaper coverage of TV food ads restrictions as a mechanism for addressing childhood obesity. The study aimed to analyze newspaper reporting of the discussion over the limitation of food ads as a childhood obesity prevention solution in Australia. The authors executed a newspaper search for three years (between July 200s and July 2005). The analysis focused on 166 newspaper articles for solutions and causes of childhood obesity, speakers quoted, and article characteristics. The findings of the analysis revealed that the major causes of childhood obesity as presented in the newspaper articles were television adverts for unhealthy foods, increased screen time, and lack of physical activity. The outcomes of the study also showed that the major areas highlighted in the articles as remedies to childhood obesity were policy transformations to food ads, establishment of supportive settings for physical activity, healthy eating policies, and supportive settings for healthy eating.

Meitz et al. (2016) examined the contextual impacts of online media-embedded health promotions against childhood obesity. The researchers accomplished this goal by conducting a 3 (type of media: Facebook, online news, blog) × 2 (reinforcement against impairment) experimental design with learners aged between 13 and 18 years. The outcomes of the study revealed that there is an association between the type of media and argumentation for sentimental self-perceptions of weight. The study findings also showed that there is a variation of self-relevance based on various source credibility perceptions. The authors concluded that campaign or promotional re-contextualization of incendiary messages may lead to negative persuasion impacts, which makes it a significant consideration in campaign developments. In a different study conducted by Buggey (2007), the authors established that the third-plus generation of the Mexican origin had more pronounced risk factor for childhood obesity relative to the first and second generations of the Mexican origin (see figure II in the appendix). This finding was attributed to the role of the new media among other factors in promoting unhealthy foods.

Marshall et al. (2004) investigated the associations between the use of media, physical activity, and body fatness in the youth and children.  The outcomes of the study indicated that out of the 52 independent samples. The mean sample-weighted impact size between body fatness and TV viewing was 0.066 (95% CI=0.056–0.078; total N=44 707). The outcomes of the evaluation of 6 independent samples revealed that the mean sample-weighted impact size between body fatness and the use of computer or video game was 0.070 (95% CI=−0.048 to 0.188; total N=1722), while the sample-weighted completely rectified size was 0.128. The results of the analysis of 39 independent samples indicated that the mean sample-weighted impact size between physical activity and viewing of television was −0.096 (95% CI=−0.080 to −0.112; total N=141 505), while the sample-weighted completely rectified effect size was −0.129. The outcomes of the assessment of 10 independent samples, showed that the mean sample-weighted impact size between the use of video or computer game and physical activity was −0.104 (95% CI=−0.080 to −0.128; total N=119 942). The sample-weighted fully corrected effect size was −0.141. In relation to these findings, the authors concluded that there exists a statistically significant association between body fatness and TV viewing among the youth and children. The authors also established that the exposure to media resulted into an increase in the Body Mass Index (BMI) over the years from 1997 to 2007 (see figure III in appendix I). BMI was also established to increase with weekly exposure to media among children (see table I in appendix II).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Materials and Methods

The data collection method in this research will be the systematic review of literature. Kitchenham et al (2009) note that in this design, existing research by validated researchers will be reviewed and used to answer the main research question. Using the Cochrane technique and methods of inclusion and exclusion, literature for the past 15 years related to the impacts of the media in childhood obesity will be reviewed towards understanding how the media can influence childhood obesity. The target period is 15 years (2002) since this represents the period for which media houses have had more influence on societies due to the high penetration of media platforms across societies. If policies have been developed to regulate the media prior to 2002, or since 2002, the 15-year period would be adequate to note the effects of the media policies and changes in reporting and advertising, that came as a result of the changes within the population. This period also represents the periods within which childhood obesity has been given much attention both globally, and thus, media as a source of information was mainly considered to be influential to childhood obesity. Furthermore, it is within this period that governments including the UK government, have defined most of its advertising and media policies in order to ensure safe marketing towards reducing the rates of childhood obesity. The inclusion criteria involved articles that were published after the year 2002 and focused on the influences of the media on childhood obesity. On the other hand, the exclusion criteria focused on articles that were published before 2002, published in a different language apart from English, and articles that are systematic review. The search process was conducted in five, prominent academic databases including Cochrane, Ebsco, Google Scholar, Medline, and ScienceDirect. The potential articles that were reviewed on the area of study were 13 (see figure I in appendix I for the search flowchart). The key words employed in the search were “influence of media,” “media,” “childhood obesity,” “children,” and “effects of media.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results/Findings

This section presents the findings of the study in relation to the influence of media on childhood obesity. The outcomes of the study established that the media influences childhood obesity both positively and negatively. The subheadings covered in this section are negative influences of media on childhood obesity, positive influences of media on childhood obesity, and the media strategies for addressing childhood obesity, as presented below:

4.1 Negative Influences of Media on Childhood Obesity

Out of the 13 articles that were reviewed only one articles did not establish the negative influences of media on childhood obesity. The findings of the study reveal that media contributes to childhood obesity where excessive exposure to media hinders children’s physical activity, limits their sleep time, increases snacking, and exposes children to ads associated with unhealthy foods, which in turn leads to increase in BMI, FMI of children. As result, children become obese. The findings of the study also reveal that girls, and children from the black ethnicity and other ethnic minorities are more vulnerable to the negative influence of the media in relation to childhood obesity. The findings of the individual articles on the negative impacts of media on childhood obesity are shown in the table below:

Author	Article Title	Findings on negative influence of the media
Strasburger et al. (2010).	Health effects of media on children and adolescents.	Children spend more time on television and associated media, thereby hindering their physical activity.
Latner et al. (2007).	Childhood obesity stigma: association with television, videogame, and magazine exposure.	Heilmann et al. (2017).	Longitudinal associations between television in the bedroom and body fatness in a UK cohort study.	Possessing a bedroom television at age 7 years is associated with significantly higher FMI and BMI (excess BMI for girls=0.57, 95% CI 0.31–0.84; excess BMI for boys=0.29, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.06–0.52; excess FMI for girls=0.39, 95% CI 0.21–0.57; excess FMI for boys=0.20, 95% CI 0.04–0.37). Exposure to too much television increases the risk for being overweight (Relative risk for girls = 1.31, 95% CI 1.15–1.48; RR for boy = 1.21, 95% CI 1.07–1.36). Hours spent viewing digital versatile disks or television result into high risk for overweight in girls alone.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (2011).	Children, Adolescents, Obesity, and the Media.	Too much screen time substitutes more active pursuits. Ads for fast food as well as junk foods increases the children’s need for such products and foods. Television and movie viewing increases snacking. Late-night screen time impedes a child’s ability to have adequate sleep, which is considered a major risk factor for obesity.	Screen Media Exposure and Obesity in Children and Adolescents.	Exposure to screen media leads to obesity in children via increased eating while viewing. Watching screen media subjects children to low-nutrient, high-calorie food as well as beverage ads or promotions that influence the preferences, consumption habits, and purchase requests of children in a negative manner. Reduced durations of sleep, which is a risk factor for obesity.
Whalen et al. (2018).	The Health Halo Trend in UK Television Food Advertising Viewed by Children: The Rise of Implicit and Explicit Health Messaging in the Promotion of Unhealthy Foods.	The depiction of physical-activity showed an 18.8% increase from 2008 (4.4 percent) to 2010 (23.2 percent). 81.1 percent of the food adverts on media containing the portrayal of physical activity in 2010 were linked to non-core foods. The existence of health claims in food adverts in 2010 rose by 4.1 percent from 20.7 percent in 2008 to 24.8 percent in 2010, where most of the food adverts that included claims of nutrition and health were linked to non-core foods (58.3 percent).
Harris et al. (2014).	Older but still vulnerable: All children need protection from unhealthy food marketing.	Media promotion of unhealthy food possess negative effects on the health as well as diets of children.
Suziedelyte (2015).	The effects of old and new media on children’s weight.	The playing of video game or use of computer does not influence a child’s body weight (regression analysis). Viewing television may result into a slight rise in the child’s body weight.
Udell and Mehta (2008).	When two sides go to war: newspaper reporting of ‘television food advertising restrictions’ as a solution to childhood obesity.	Key causes of childhood obesity are television ads for unhealthy foods, excessive or increased screen time, and inadequate physical activity.
Meitz et al. (2016).	Source does matter: Contextual effects on online media-embedded health campaigns against childhood obesity	Media influences a child’s weight
Buggey (2007).	A Picture Is Worth.	Media influence has resulted into more incidences of childhood obesity among the third-plus generation of the Mexican descent (see figure II in the appendix).
Marshall et al. Table I: Negative impacts of media on childhood obesity 4.2 Positive Influences of Media on Childhood Obesity Only one article revealed the positive impacts of media on childhood obesity. The findings of the study reveal that media can play a significant role in creating awareness about childhood obesity. In relation to this, the findings of the article are shown in the table below: Author Article Title Findings positive Influences of the media Evans et al (2009). Childhood Obesity Prevention in South Africa: Media, Social Influences, and Social Marketing Opportunities. Media outlets sources like radio and print can serve as avenues for conveying health information concerning childhood obesity to create awareness among parents and children. Table II: Positive Influences of Media on Childhood Obesity 4.3 Strategies for Limiting Negative Influences of Media on Childhood Obesity The outcomes of the study revealed several measures or approaches that can be employed in addressing childhood obesity arising from the influence of the media. These approaches are careful structuring of media content to encourage constructive entertainment and discourse about childhood obesity, establishment of childhood obesity prevention mechanisms that provide alternatives to television sets in kids’ bedrooms, engagement of interactive media in improving children’s eating habits, imposition of bans on media ads related to unhealthy foods during television programmes for kids, and development of policies aimed at regulating media practices that may lead to childhood obesity such as adverts for unhealthy foods. Other approaches are embracement of self-regulation by food firms and media, engagement of parents in measures focused on preventing or reducing childhood obesity, employing media outlets in creating childhood obesity awareness among children, government regulation of marketing practices for unhealthy foods, establishment supportive settings for physical activity and healthy eating, and promotional re-contextualization of incendiary information or messages to promote negative persuasion about foods or actions that may result into childhood obesity. The findings of individual articles in this area are presented in the table below:   Author Article Title Findings on Strategies Latner et al. (2007). Childhood obesity stigma: association with television, videogame, and magazine exposure. Careful structuring of content to encourage constructive discussions along with entertainment that supports weight management. An example of such an approach is engaging in constant establishment of video games that involve the whole body in physical movements, with the aim of letting the body stay active. Heilmann et al. (2017). Longitudinal associations between television in the bedroom and body fatness in a UK cohort study. Establishment of child obesity prevention interventions that consider other alternatives for television in children bedrooms. Robinson et al. (2015). Screen Media Exposure and Obesity in Children and Adolescents. Employment or engagement of interactive media in improving the eating behaviours and physical activity of children. The American Academy of Pediatrics (2011). Children, Adolescents, Obesity, and the Media. Imposition of bans on ads associated with fast food or junk food within the television programming for kids.   Whalen et al. (2018). The Health Halo Trend in UK Television Food Advertising Viewed by Children: The Rise of Implicit and Explicit Health Messaging in the Promotion of Unhealthy Foods. Amendment of the prevailing statutory approach to regulate media actions that may contribute to childhood obesity. Harris et al. Evans et al (2009). Childhood Obesity Prevention in South Africa: Media, Social Influences, and Social Marketing Opportunities. Employing media sources in creating awareness about childhood obesity. Udell and Mehta (2008). When two sides go to war: newspaper reporting of ‘television food advertising restrictions’ as a solution to childhood obesity. Policy transformations to food adverts. Development of supportive settings for physical activity and healthy eating policies Establishment of supportive settings for healthy eating.   Meitz et al. (2016).   Promotional re-contextualization of incendiary messages to enhance negative persuasion about actions or foods that may lead to childhood obesity. Table III: Strategies for Limiting Negative Influences of Media on Childhood Obesity 4.4 Comparison of Media Influence on Obesity in the UK and other Countries such as the U.S. The findings of the study revealed that UK, U.S, and Mexico compare to each other when it comes to the influence of media in promoting childhood obesity. In the three countries, media enhances the risk factors for childhood obesity such as limiting physical activity and exposing children to ads that promote unhealthy foods and eating habits. These findings are summarized in the table below: Comparison of Media Influence on Obesity in the UK and U.S UK U.S Media subject children to ads that promote unhealthy eating habits (Whalen et al., 018). Exposes kids to ads that promote junk foods (Udell and Mehta, 2008). Kids spend much time on screen media which limits their physical activity and makes them to add weight (Heilmann et al., 2017). Media exposes children to adverts that promote unhealthy foods (Harris et al., 2014). Media subjects children to advertisements that promote unhealthy foods (The American Academy of Pediatrics, 2011). Too much time on screen media leads to an increase in body weight in kids (Robinson et al, 2015).   Table IV: Comparison of Media Influence on Obesity in the UK and the U.S     CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 Discussion This study aimed to investigate the influence of media on childhood obesity by focusing on the UK and other countries such as the U.S. The outcomes of the study in relation to this objective cover four primary areas including negative influences media on childhood obesity, positive effects of media in relation to childhood obesity, strategies for addressing negative influences of media in relation to childhood obesity, and comparison of media influence on obesity in the UK and other countries such as the U.S. These areas are discussed in the subheadings below: 5.1 Negative Influences Media on Childhood Obesity The outcomes of this study in relation to the 13 articles reviewed reveal that media plays a significant role in facilitating the development of childhood obesity among children in the UK and other countries such as the U.S. Out of the 13 articles reviewed in this study, 12 articles highlighted the negative influence of media in promoting childhood obesity. According to Buggey (2007), Suziedelyte (2015), and Meitz et al. (2016), media has an influence on the weight of the child. In relation to this, the findings of the American Academy of Pediatrics (2011), and Strasburger et al. (2010). Latner et al. (2007) show that media consumes much of the children’s time. In order to explain how the consumption of much of the children’s time results into obesity, the findings of Udell and Mehta (2008), Marshall et al. (2004), Harris et al. (2014), Whalen et al. (2018), The Academy of Pediatrics (2011), Latner et al. (2007), and Strasburger et al. (2010) reveal that the media contributes to the reduction of the physical activity of children, exposes children to ads that promote the consumption of unhealthy foods, increases snacking, and limits the sleep duration of children, which are among the risk factors for obesity (see table I in the findings section). Therefore, the findings of the study show that media plays a key role in the development of risk factors for childhood obesity. The study outcomes also reveal that excessive exposure to media increases Body Mass Index (BMI) and FMI in children, especially girls (Marshall et al., 2004). In table I of appendix I, it can be noted that the BMI of children increases weakly, while in figure III of appendix I it can be seen that the BMI increases over the years from 1997 to 2007 (Marshall et al., 2004). Besides, the findings of the study reveal that the negative influence of the media in relation to promoting childhood obesity is more pronounced in children from black ethnicity and children from other ethnic minorities such as Mexicans (Latner et al., 2007; Buggey, 2007). In figure II appendix I, it can be noted that the BMI of children from the Mexican origin is higher than that of the children from the White descent. 5.2 Positive Effects of Media in Relation to Childhood Obesity Out of the 13 articles that were reviewed in this study, only one article highlighted the positive effects of media in addressing the issue of childhood obesity among children. According to Evans et al., (2009), media sources like print and radio offer a suitable platform on which vital health information associated with childhood obesity can be conveyed to create childhood obesity awareness among children and parents (see table II in the section of findings). In this manner, it can be established that the media plays the advocacy role against childhood obesity risk factors and practices. 5.3 Strategies for Addressing Negative Influences of Media in Relation to Childhood Obesity The study findings reveal that several measures can be embraced to limit the negative influence of media on childhood obesity among the UK children. The approaches that can be adopted to prevent or reduce childhood obesity by focusing on the media and associated sources are cautious structuring of the content of media to inspire constructive entertainment and dialogue about childhood obesity, formation of childhood obesity deterrence mechanisms that provide replacements to television sets in kids’ bedrooms, employment of interactive media in taming the eating habits of children, imposition of injunctions against media adverts associated with to unhealthy foods during kids’ television programmes, and formation of laws aimed at controlling media practices or actions that may lead to childhood obesity like ads for unhealthy foods (The American Academy of Pediatrics, 2011; Robinson et al., 2015; Latner et al., 2007). Other strategies are embracement of self-regulation measures by media and food firms, incorporation of parents in interventions focused on thwarting or  minimizing cases of childhood obesity, using media outlets in establishing childhood obesity awareness among parents and children, government control of marketing activities for unhealthy foods, creation of supportive settings for healthy eating and physical activity, and promotional re-contextualization of provocative information to enhance negative persuasion about actions or foods that may lead to childhood obesity (Meitz et al., 2016; Udell and Mehta (2008). Evans et al., 2009; Whalen et al. (2018) (see table III in the findings section). 5.4 Comparison of Media Influence on Obesity in the UK and other Countries such as the U.S. In general the findings of the study revealed that children in the UK and other countries such as U.S and Mexico experience similar influences of media when it comes to the issue of childhood obesity. In the findings of the studies by Whalen et al., (2018), Udell and Mehta, (2008), Harris et al., (2014), American Academy of Pediatrics (2011), Heilmann et al. (2017), and Robinson et al., 92015), children in the UK and U.S are exposed to media promotions or ads that encourage unhealthy eating and snacking, and spend much of their time on media, which in turn limits their physical activity (see table IV in the results section). The primary limitation of this study lies in its adoption of the systematic review approach, which makes it vulnerable to inherit bias from the secondary sources of data (articles) reviewed by the author. As such, future studies should focus on gathering primary data using qualitative and quantitative techniques of research such as surveys and interviews.       CHAPTER SIX 6.0 Primary Data Analysis and Arguments for and Arguments against Media 6.1 Primary Data Analysis The outcomes of the primary data are in line with the findings of this study (secondary data) (see appendix II for the questionnaire employed in gathering primary data). Primary data was collected from 79 participants, who completed and submitted their questionnaire copies. Television sets (71%) and video games (65%) were the dominant forms of media accessed by children. As in the case of secondary data, the outcomes of the primary data analysis revealed that excessive exposure to media negatively influences the health of children in relation to childhood obesity by limiting their physical activity, limiting their sleep time, increasing snacking, and exposing them to adverts associated with unhealthy eating. The findings of the primary data analysis went further to reveal the major negative impact of media on children in relation to childhood obesity whereby decreased physical activity was mentioned by majority of the participants (61%). Limiting sleep time, increasing snacking, and exposure to ads involving unhealthy foods followed at 24%, 10%, and 5% respectively. In addition, the outcomes of the evaluation of primary data revealed that media influenced children in a positive manner by educating them on healthy eating and creating awareness about childhood obesity. In relation to strategies for addressing negative influences of media on children, participants preferred eight measures. These strategies are cautious structuring of content of media to promote constructive entertainment and discourse concerning childhood obesity, engaging interactive media in enhancing children’s eating habits, imposing bans on media adverts involving unhealthy foods during TV programmes for kids, establishing robust policies for regulating media ads associated with unhealthy foods, firms and media to embrace self-regulation, involving parents in interventions aimed at addressing childhood obesity, using media outlets to create awareness about childhood obesity among children, and regulation of marketing activities for unhealthy foods by the government. Among these strategies, development of policies that govern adverts for unhealthy foods was preferred by majority of participants (53%). Government regulation of marketing activities for unhealthy foods, imposition of bans, careful structuring of media content, and using media outlets to create awareness followed at 22%, 11%, 9%, and 5% respectively. As such, the primary data contributes largely to the identification of priority areas in relation to major negative effect of media influence on children and major strategy to be adopted to address the negative influences of media on children.   6.2 Arguments for and Arguments against Media Considering the outcomes of the primary and secondary data analysis it is evident that media plays a significant role in the development of obesity among children. The media enhances childhood obesity in four major ways. First, excessive exposure to the media limits children’s physical activity. Second, extreme exposure to media increases snacking among children. Third, too much exposure to media limits children’s sleep duration. Fourth, exposure to media subjects kids to ads involving unhealthy foods. All these four factors are considered among the key childhood obesity risk factors. Despite the role played by media in enhancing the development of childhood obesity among kids, the outcomes of the secondary and primary data analyses reveal that the media plays a vital role in the reduction of childhood obesity. This role is accomplished in two major ways. First, the media helps to create awareness about childhood obesity and its risk factors. Second, the media plays the educative role about childhood obesity. In this manner, children and their parents are informed of the food they should avoid and ways they can employ in minimising childhood obesity.   In summary, the significance of the media in the contemporary society where information is vital for economic development cannot be overlooked. Even though the media may contribute, in one way or another, to the development of childhood obesity, the media also plays a key role in the reduction of childhood obesity. As such, measures such as bans on unhealthy food ads during children TV programmes, government regulation of marketing activities for unhealthy foods on the media, employment of media in creating childhood obesity awareness, and self-regulation by the food companies and media among others should be embraced to prevent negative influences of the media on children’s health in relation to childhood obesity.                               CHAPTER SEVEN 7.0 Conclusions This study aimed at investigating the influence of media on childhood obesity. The study accomplished this goal by focusing on the negative and positive influences of media on childhood obesity, strategies for addressing the negative influences of media on childhood obesity, and comparison of the UK and U.S in relation to the media influences on childhood obesity. The findings of the study showed that the negative influence of media on childhood obesity exists in exposure of children risk factors for obesity such reducing physical activity of children, limiting kids’ sleep duration, and exposure of children to ads that encourage consumption of unhealthy foods. The study findings also show that girls, kids from the black ethnicity, and other ethnic minorities are more vulnerable to the negative influences of media in relation to childhood obesity. In relation to positive influence of media, the study outcomes reveal the media offers an avenue for creating awareness about childhood obesity by allowing for the conveyance of vital health information about this condition. In relation to the comparison of UK and U.S, the study outcomes reveal that the two countries compare to each other in the sense that, in both counties, the media contributes to childhood obesity by promoting obesity risk factors like consumption of unhealthy foods, limited physical activity, and short sleep duration.   In relation to strategies for addressing negative media influences on childhood obesity, the outcomes of the study reveal strategies such as promotional re-contextualization of provocative message to promote negative persuasion concerning actions or foods that may enhance the development childhood obesity, creation of supportive settings or situations for healthy eating and physical activity, government control of marketing actions for unhealthy foods, using media outlets in creating childhood obesity awareness among kids and parents, partnering with parents in measures focused on preventing or  minimizing cases of childhood obesity, and adoption of self-regulation measures by media and food firms. Other approaches are cautious constructing of the content of media to motivate constructive entertainment and dialogue concerning childhood obesity, formation of deterrence mechanisms for childhood obesity that serve as replacements to television sets in children’s bedrooms, use of interactive media in cultivating healthy eating habits among kids, imposing injunctions against media ads linked to unhealthy foods during kids’ television programmes, and forming of laws that govern media activities that may result into childhood obesity. The findings o the secondary research are supported by the findings of the primary research. As such, the paper recommends the adoption of these approaches in order to curb the issue of childhood obesity in UK.   (2014). Older but still vulnerable: All children need protection from unhealthy food marketing. Embracement of self-regulation on the part of media and food firms. Involvement of parents in measures aimed at curbing childhood obesity. Government regulation of food marketing practices executed in the media. (2004).	Relationships between media use, body fatness and physical activity in children and youth: a meta-analysis.	TV viewing increases body fatness (0.066 (95% CI=0.056–0.078; total N=44 707). The use of computer or video game increases body fatness in children. Excessive viewing of television minimizes physical activity (95% CI=−0.080 to −0.112; total N=141 505) The use of computer game or video game minimizes physical activity (95% CI=−0.080 to −0.128; total N=119 942). Too much exposure to media results into a rise in the Body Mass Index (BMI) over the years (see figure III in the appendix). BMI increases with weekly excessive use of media among children (see table I in the appendix).