Answer

Introduction

Research has proven that dissatisfied workers are a liability to an organization. On the other hand, satisfied workers are a vital human resource that creates sustainable competitive advantages. Given the benefits derived from satisfied employees compared to dissatisfied ones, organizations are looking into ways to boost the satisfaction levels. Their goal is not only to improve the levels of satisfaction to facilitate the delivery of quality services to their clients but also, to promote the general wellness of their employees^[1]. As much as these goals are admirable, the path to increasing employee satisfaction is often marred by a number of dynamics. For instance, satisfaction is, by itself, a subjective term. Therefore, workers are likely to be satisfied with different work conditions. Some prefer finances, while others value non-financial incentives. Likewise, variables such as income, age, gender, and educational levels affect the ability of most individuals to be satisfied with their work. Therefore, this literature review explores past research on these variables to provide a focused explanation of job satisfaction among US workers. The scope of the literature review is defined by two hypotheses; first, a higher level of family income heightens the level of job satisfaction. Secondly, higher age creates higher levels of job satisfaction.

Literature Review

Defining Job Satisfaction

The definition of the term job satisfaction has significantly evolved over the years. According to Hoppock, job satisfaction refers to the fulfilment derived by employees when an organization provides favorable psychological, environmental, and physiological conditions. Smith et al. (1969) provides a simplified definition associating job satisfaction with the positive feeling by employees towards their jobs. Locke (1969) suggested that the term refers to the pleasurable reactions associated with a fulfilling job experience or job related achievements. On the other hand, Vroom (1982) denotes that job satisfaction is the emotional inclination and orientation of an employee towards their roles at the workplace. Unlike the other definitions, Schultz (1982) describes job satisfaction as a psychological disposition of someone towards their job^[2]. Lofquist and Davis (1991) present one of the most current definitions of job satisfaction where they associate the term with positive affection reactions resulting from a favorable work environment that helps them fulfil their personal needs. These varied definitions of job satisfaction share the standard view that satisfaction in the workplace is a measure of the positive work-related affective reactions expressed by employees towards their jobs.

The breadth of these definitions indicates that job satisfaction is a bi-dimensional concept composed of two dimensions; extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction. Intrinsic dimensions are depending on individual or personal characteristics and attitude of an employee towards the job and their personal lives. This includes factors such as their ability to accept responsibility, use initiative, and the nature of work done by the person. Extrinsic dimensions that influence job satisfaction include situational dynamics in the environment such as organizational policies, security, health, and safety measures, and the general condition of the work environment within the organization, such as availability of material and financial rewards^[3].

History and Determinants of Job Satisfaction

The issue of job satisfaction was first investigated in the Hawthorne studies by Elton Mayo at the Harvard Business School. The research sought to identify the conditions that affected worker productivity. The findings showed that positive changes in the work environment could enhance productivity. This phenomenon was described as the Hawthorne effect. The findings further showed that employee’s productivity is determined by many other factors other than financial incentives. The Hawthorne Studies were complemented by Scientific Management experiments by Frederick Taylor. His studies led to the introduction of Taylorism, which is associated with higher productivity, but a less satisfying work environment. Workers exposed to scientific management principles were more dissatisfied and exhausted. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs motivation theory came in handy in correcting this condition. It explains how employees at different stages of life pose different needs. For instance, the needs begin with basic or physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, and advance upwards to self-esteem needs and self-actualization needs. Lu et al. note that the Maslow’s theory formed the basis upon which other job satisfaction theories evolved^[4]. Because of the advancements in job satisfaction literature, researchers such as Gillespie et al. have established that there are three broad factors that determine or explain job satisfaction among workers in the USA^[5].

The first disposition is that personal factors namely age, sex, education, family background,  marital status, personal attitude, and socio-economic background form critical  determinants of satisfaction in any job. For instance, the degree of job satisfaction among male and female employees is likely to be different depending on the suitability of the job to a specific gender. Jobs that align more with the males will be more satisfying to men, while those that align with the female roles will be more satisfying to women. Higher educational levels further predispose a person to a better and more satisfying job than those with lower education. Aging employees tend to value their work and find more job satisfaction compared to younger employees^[6]. Other factors that determine the satisfaction levels could arise from personality traits and attitude towards life, the background of the individual, and their marital status.

The second set of factors that determine employee satisfaction is the workplace environment. They include the nature of the work, workplace conditions, and influence of the external environment. The third category of factors that affect job satisfaction are mostly related to the organizational environment. They include nature of management and supervision, organizational culture, the type of workgroups, wage rates, autonomy, work hours, job security and availability of growth opportunities. A combination of these three broad categories of factors influences the extent of job satisfaction, which, in return, determines the productive efficiency of the employees. Signs of low job satisfaction include high absenteeism rates, irresponsible behavior, high employee turnover, and non-commitment to work. Considering the broad scope of factors that determine employee satisfaction, this literature review focuses on personal determinants of job satisfaction.

Impact of Personal/ Individual Factors on Job Satisfaction among US Workers

1. Age and impact on job satisfaction

There are two contending views regarding the impact of age on job satisfaction. Studies by Saleh and Otis (1964) argue that an increase in age increases job satisfaction, while Robins (2001) contends that increasing age triggers a decline in job satisfaction. Saleh and Otis explain that as a person ages, they advance their job-related knowledge and experiences, thus access more remunerative and social advantages that enhance their satisfaction. In another study using a U-shaped function, it was established that job satisfaction was higher among younger employees as they were excited about their transition into work. However, as they continue to work over the years, their satisfaction diminishes because of monotony. Surprisingly, the U curve shows that satisfaction increases again as they age. Other studies, such as Green (2000) claims that there is no relationship between age and job satisfaction. This study intends to identify whether there exists a relationship between these variables.

1. Income and Job Satisfaction

Work-related income has proven to affect job satisfaction. According to research by Marasinghe and Anusha, paying more than rival firms does not guarantee high job satisfaction^[7]. In fact, organizations that pay more have less satisfied employees. They explain that the higher the salary, the higher the expectations from the employer. The resultant responsibilities and pressure associated with the increased pay have a negative impact on job satisfaction. Similarly, work-related pressure permeates to the personal life of the employees. Davies et al. report that most family disputes and tensions arise when one of the couples is spending more time on the job and neglecting other household responsibilities^[8]. In addition, stressed employees often go home stressed, and this negative emotional condition affects all the other members of the household. Interestingly, studies by Gallup established that low-income employees equally experienced low levels of satisfaction with their jobs. According to the research, low-income households earned a combined income below $36,000. Gallup further noted that high-income workers earning more than $90,000 annually expressed a satisfaction rate of 91.9%^[9]. Another contrasting view is presented by O’Donnell et al., who conducted research on the Chinese army to establish how variations in wages affected their job satisfaction. The findings made showed that pay increases significantly improved the satisfaction levels of junior officers. Using the findings made in this research, O’Donnell et al. insist that household income is the leading determinant on job satisfaction and has the potential of impacting the overall wellbeing of an employee. The author further notes that relative income has proven to have a strong impact on the levels of job satisfaction globally, regardless of the country or culture.

Unlike O’Donnell et al.’s argument, Wenshu and Russell introduce new dynamics regarding the impact of household income on job satisfaction^[10]. They conducted research on two datasets in Urban China. The findings of their research reported that an increase in income for low-income earners increased their job satisfaction. The article explained that the higher income elevated their social status, thus making them feel more accomplished. They could equally afford a decent lifestyle and high quality of life, which contributed to higher satisfaction.

1. Sex/ Gender and Job Satisfaction

Gender is considered a control variable in this research study. Studies have presented contrasting views on the correlation between sex and job satisfaction. Whereas some studies show that females tend to show higher levels of satisfaction, others indicate that males have higher studies. Contrary to these findings, Azim et al. found that sex did not determine job satisfaction^[11]. Studies across different professions presented diverse results. For instance, a study by Olatunji involving health workers showed that males in the profession reported higher job satisfaction compared to their female colleagues, while findings from the agricultural sector depicted that women working as extension agents were more satisfied than their male counterparts^[12]. Other studies have made interesting findings showing that in general, females were more satisfied despite being in lower-earning jobs. A critical look at this literature fails to provide a conclusive stand on whether gender affects job satisfaction among US workers.

1. Level of Education and Job Satisfaction

There is extensive literature on the relationship between level of education and job satisfaction. Some of these findings note that people with higher educational achievements tend to have higher job satisfaction^[13]. With this reality, organizations are encouraged to invest in training and development initiatives that enhance the professionalism of their employees. On the contrary, low educational levels were associated with a lack of job satisfaction. This occurrence is explained in terms of pay levels and the intensity of work involved. For instance, those with low educational levels tend to work in physically demanding jobs which creates frustration which explains the lack of satisfaction. In addition, Gürbüz clarifies that well educated and trained individuals can easily switch between jobs^[14]. Their high mobility across jobs enables them to find the jobs that give them most satisfaction. On the other hand, people with low education have limited options and few job offers. Their mobility across jobs is limited which exacerbates their frustration and dissatisfaction with themselves and their jobs.

Theoretical Framework

Three groups of theories define the theoretical framework for explaining job satisfaction among workers in the USA. These theories are summarized under content, situational, and process theories. Content theories express the view that job satisfaction increases when the individual needs of a person are met. This includes fulfilling basic needs and self-actualization needs. The process theories explain that job satisfaction can be enhanced by designing the job to meet the values and expectations of the employees. The third framework of theories related to job satisfaction is known as situational theories. These theories argue that job satisfaction results from a collaborative interplay between organizational and personal characteristics. Considering the limited scope of this research, content theories are the most applicable. Kapur explains that Maslow’s needs hierarchy theory of motivation was the first theory to describe how the fulfillment of human needs improved their job satisfaction^[15]. The theory emphasizes that organizations should ensure their employees’ need for five-tier needs are met, starting with physiological, security needs, social needs, self-esteem, and self-actualization needs are addressed.

Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory builds on Maslow’s theory by classifying the work environment into intrinsic or motivator factors and extrinsic or hygiene factors. Motivators include availability of growth opportunities and recognition for good performance/ achievements, while hygiene factors range from competitive pay, favorable work conditions, and supportive interpersonal relationships. Poor hygiene creates a less enjoyable work environment. Third, the affect theory by Edwin Locke (1976) also provides a clear explanation of job satisfaction. This theory premises that employees register high job satisfaction when there is a minimal discrepancy between their wants and what the job offers. The theory further notes that the way a person values some facets of work, such as pay, could affect their feeling of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Meeting the expectations increases satisfaction while failure to meet their individual needs creates dissatisfaction. The affect theory justifies the contradictions in the findings on the effects of different variables on job satisfaction. Considering the explanations presented by these theories, it is certain that job satisfaction among US workers is determined by multiple factors.

Conclusion

A critical analysis of diverse sources of literature creates a new level of understanding of the explanation of job satisfaction among US workers. Past literature acknowledges that job satisfaction is a wide area of study; thus, it has attracted diverse definitions. A comparison of these definitions leads to the affirmative that job satisfaction is the encouraging affective reaction expressed by employees towards their work environment depending on its ability to help them meet their personal needs. From this definition, it is evident that satisfaction in the workplace is a measure of the positive work-related affective reactions expressed by employees towards their jobs. These factors are classified into two dimensions; extrinsic and intrinsic satisfaction. Intrinsic dimensions are depending on individual or personal characteristics and attitude of an employee towards the job and their personal lives. This includes factors such as their ability to accept responsibility, use initiative, and the nature of work done by the person. The elements of interest to this research included age, household income, and gender. The correlation between these elements and job satisfaction is a highly contested debate where the actual research seeks to demystify.

[1] Kapur, Radhika. “Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction.” Journal. University of New Delhi (2018).

[2] Milledzi, Eugene Yaw, Mark Owusu Amponsah, and Lebbaeus Asamani. “Impact of socio-demographic factors on job satisfaction among academic staff of universities in Ghana.” International Journal of Research 7, no. 2 (2018): 67-88.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Lu, Hong, Yang Zhao, and Alison While. “Job satisfaction among hospital nurses: A literature review.” International journal of nursing studies 94 (2019): 21-31.

[5] Gillespie, Michael A., William K. Balzer, Michelle H. Brodke, Maya Garza, Erin N. Gerbec, Jennifer Z. Gillespie, Purnima Gopalkrishnan et al. “Normative measurement of job satisfaction in the US.” Journal of Managerial Psychology (2016).

[6] Shah, Syed Mir Muhammad, Ramsha Ali, Abdul Samad Dahri, Noor Ahmed Brohi, Zulfiqar Ahmed Maher, and W. U. Hameed. “Determinants of job satisfaction among nurses: Evidence from South Asian perspective.” International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences 8, no. 5 (2018): 19-26.

[7] Marasinghe, M. P. L. R., and Anusha Wijayaratne. “Generational differences and job satisfaction in university library professionals, Sri Lanka.” Universal Journal of Management 4, no. 9 (2016): 500-507.

[8] Davies, Eleanor MM, Beatrice IJM Van der Heijden, and Matt Flynn. “Job satisfaction, retirement attitude and intended retirement age: a conditional process analysis across workers’ level of household income.” Frontiers in psychology 8 (2017): 891.

[9] O’Donnell, Pat, and D. Mirtcheva-Broderson. “The effect of income and working conditions on job satisfaction.” Availabel at: https://business. tcnj. Edu/files/2015/08/ECO-495-2015_Patrick-ODonnell. pdf (accessed January 10, 2017) (2015).

[10] Wenshu, G. A. O., and Russell Smyth. “Job satisfaction and relative income in economic transition: Status or signal? The case of urban China.” China Economic Review 21, no. 3 (2010): 442-455.

[11] Azim, Mohammad Tahlil, Mohammad Moinul Haque, and Rashid Ahmed Chowdhury. “Gender, marital status and job satisfaction an empirical study.” International Review of Management and Business Research 2, no. 2 (2013): 488.

[12] Olatunji, S. O., and Bolade O. Mokuolu. “The influence of sex, marital status, and tenure of service on job stress, and job satisfaction of health workers in a Nigerian federal health institution.” African Research Review 8, no. 1 (2014): 126-133.

[13] Gürbüz, Ahmet. “An assessment on the effect of education level on the job satisfaction from the toursim sector point of view.” (2017).

[14] Ibid

[15] Kapur, Radhika. “Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction.” Journal. University of New Delhi (2018).