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Analysis of Specialist Knowledge and Pedagogies: Application to Teaching English to Non-Native Speakers of English

Part A

Introduction

The dawn of 21^st century has introduced significant changes in teaching methods and didactics. Pedagogy of the 21^st century differs from the 20^th century’s. The many changes in pedagogy have been associated with the internationalization of the global society and the penetration of digital know-hows into learning (Richards, 2017). The present generation, commonly referred to as socially digital and generation Z go seeking for knowledge in foreign countries (Eslami et al., 2010). Digital technologies have changed our way of life, the way we communicate, think and feel and influenced our social skills and behavior. Consequently, the current generation of learners needs English for Academic Purposes (EAP) skills and knowledge to get their research published and presented in various databases, like the Web of Science (Mak, 2011). Traditionally, education was understood as “learning outcomes,” “the process as well as result of mastering the systems a language knowledge and cognitive skills” (Choi, 2016, p. 519). That is, acquiring an education implied obtaining an education certification or university diploma (Frazier & Phillabaum, 2011). Nonetheless, in modern learning pedagogy, education is perceived in a more comprehensive form:  (i) as process and outcome of learning, (ii) as a society value since society expended more than eight millennia to develop a burdensome educational system; (iii) an individual’s value since modern individual spends more than fifteen years of their life on profession and education; (iv) a social institution that has its own economy, management bodies, powerful infrastructure, didactic systems, and educational programs, among other aspects (Eslami et al., 2010). It is against this backdrop that this paper aims at systematically and critically analyzing the traditional and innovative pedagogies used in the teaching of English to non-native students. 

Analysis of Pedagogies and Practices in Teaching the English Language

The digital generation has witnessed significant changes in the teaching pedagogies, particularly in the teaching of English to non-native students. New pedagogies have considered educational space to be expanding beyond the traditional classroom. Technology has enabled the teaching of English through the use of internet video resources in explaining English concepts and during group discussion through the use of smartphones (Richards, 2017). This has been associated with changes that have occurred in the thinking, attention and memory of the digital generation. Students and schoolchildren have more short term memories. For this reason, new methods and strategies of fixing knowledge in long term memory as well as development of competencies and abilities are required (Freeman et al., 2015). Teachers should learn new digital and information technologies more actively, leading to the development of various pedagogies that were traditionally and presently being used in teaching English. There are various pedagogies that have been used in teaching English. They are as discussed below.

1. Connectivism and Constructivism as Background Philosophies

Multiple viewpoints, the capability of seeing connections in ideas, fields, and concepts, real-world environments, and authentic activities are some of the themes that are associated with the two educational philosophies/theories of connectivism and constructivism. These two philosophies have several common characteristics that make them instrumental to the teaching of English. They have multiple representations and perspectives of concepts and content are encouraged and presented (Frazier & Phillabaum, 2011). They provide opportunities, environments, tools, and activities to motivate metacognition, self-regulation, self-analysis, self-awareness and self-reflection in learners (Moser et al., 2012). Learning situations, skills, environments, tasks and content are realistic, authentic, relevant and seek to imitate the natural complexities in the actual world (Frazier & Phillabaum, 2011). They emphasize knowledge reproduction and construction and knowledge construction occurs in personal contexts and via social negotiation, experience and collaboration (Mak, 2011). They take into consideration students’ past knowledge constructions, attitudes and beliefs as crucial to the new processes of knowledge construction (Eslami et al., 2010). See the figure 1 below for more characteristics of the two English learning philosophies.

Figure 1. More characteristics of connectivism and constructivism philosophies (Freeman et al., 2015).

2. Using Corpus Linguistics for Teaching English Genres

Corpus linguistics, according to Richards (2017), is extremely crucial in the teaching of EAP since it is the study of language through naturally occurring means or samples that are stored in corpora (Frazier & Phillabaum, 2011). Corpra are databases that are computerized and created for linguistic research. Corpus have the following characteristics: authentic and naturally existing data, assembled in accordance with explicit design criteria, representative of a certain genre and language, and are designed for a particular socio-pragmatic or linguistic purpose (Pennington & Richards, 2016). Therefore, corpus refers to the study of language via computational assessments of large assortments of speech recordings and written texts (Moser et al., 2012). Its assessment is often conducted using specialized software programmes. Eslami et al. (2010) explain that corpus linguistics is a methodology that is used to acquire and analyze data both qualitatively and quantitatively as opposed to a theory of language.

The main advantage of the corpus-linguistic approach to teaching language is that language students/researchers are not obligated to depending on their individual other students’ intuitions/views or even upon made-up samples and examples (Frazier & Phillabaum, 2011). They can rather draw upon a large quantity of authentic and naturally existing language data/information that is generated by a variety of writers and speakers to refute or confirm their individual hypotheses regarding specific language characteristics upon the foundation of an empirical basis (Richards, 2017). As noted by Richards et al. (2013), this moves language study from ideas and notions of what is correct/right to what is frequent or typical. The corpus-linguistic strategy can be employed in describing language characteristics and in testing hypotheses that are formulated in different linguistic frameworks (Freeman et al., 2015). For instance, corpora recording various phases of learner language (advanced, intermediate, and beginner learners) can give information for foreign language acquisition research or through the traditional corpora means, it is possible for a learner to track the development of particular characteristics in English’ history like the emergence of wanna and gonna modal verbs (Eslami et al., 2010).

Presently, there are several software programmes which help in the analysis of various corpora. They include the WordSmith Tools (Richards, 2017), an integrated suite of programmes that help in the examination of the behavior of words in texts and the TextSTAT (2012), which can be downloaded at no cost.

Evidently, non-native students of the English can benefit a lot from studying EAP in various ways. They can augment their linguistic adeptness/proficiency by examining grammatical and lexical aspects of the English language use in their areas of specialization (Mak, 2011). They can also make use of frequency wordlists in discovering their discipline-specific helpful phrases as well as their collections. This can help non-native English students to enhance their discipline/profession-specific communication skills. Similarly, through the use of the programmes, non-native English students can look at some socio-linguistic markers, like comparison of English language use between themselves and native speakers, spoken and written, to better their intercultural communication adeptness (Eslami et al., 2010).

Additionally, EAP instructors can employ corpus linguistics in three fundamental spheres in their English teaching as suggested by Freeman et al. (2015). First in syllabus design. To meet the needs of students, teachers employ a corpus to attempt to gauge what language elements ought to be incorporated into an English course’s syllabus. Second is in material development. With the assistance of a corpus, instructors can develop exercises based upon real life examples which give learners opportunities to discover characteristics of actual language use. Lastly is in classroom activities. Learners themselves can discover, in the course of their language classes, how a concordancing programme functions and draw their individual conclusions regarding language use, an opportunity that promote learners’ autonomy (Pennington & Richards, 2016).

3. Task-Based Activities

Task-based language learning (TBLL) strategy is widespread in the learning and teaching EAP owing to the fact that non-native students have to research and solve real-world academic matters for the to succeed in their studies (Moser et al., 2012). Using the TBLL strategy, a lesson usually has the following phases: pre-task activity, task, practice, task planning, analysis and report (Ellis, 2010). This approach has several advantages for teaching EAP. It allows students to corporate in groups and, therefore, develops cooperative learning in (re)solving different tasks, for instance, in the elucidation of cooperative subject-specific presentations (Mak, 2011). TBLL, according to Richards et al. (2013), has the ability of encouraging learners’ deeper comprehension of various topics. It also develops learners’ metacognition skills, like reflection and critical thinking skills which are indispensable for conduction of research (Moser et al., 2012). Similarly, a TBLL strategy exposes learners to various collections and structures. Conversely, TBLL has been criticized for its lack of sensitivity to the cultural and social dimensions of language learning (Pennington & Richards, 2016). Additionally, with respect to teaching EAP, which is aimed at teaching language efficiently, TBLL’s naturalistic bias has been regarded as inefficient for teaching and learning fundamental vocabulary and grammar for the beginning level (Lee, 2018).

4. Use of Authentic Tasks and Materials

In teaching EAP, Richards et al. (2013) note that there is often the tendency of prioritizing authentic texts, like the employment of case studies for law, medicine, business, and engineering, among other disciplines. However, there are other scholars who have argued that contrived/non-authentic materials serve better pedagogical purposes than authentic materials. According to Ellis (2010), contrived texts have the ability of enriching learners’ input with extra examples of the intended structure, whereas authentic texts can provide learners with important exposure to the language. Pennington and Richards (2016) add that EAP learners do not often find the use of discipline-specific, authentic materials attractive because they say they have the obligation of reading these kinds of materials/texts all the time in their classes and they would prefer other authentic materials while learning EAP. A solution to this challenge has been the development and use of videos of the desired subjects. In each lesson, learners are exposed to present subjects/topics from different fields (like sports, politics, culture, or environment), and using these, they run discussions besides doing different tasks. Additionally, such materials connect learners with the external world and, therefore, they are extra involved in their learning.

5. Promotion of Learner Autonomy

Autonomous learning is commonplace in EAP teaching practices since EAP learners are more self-directed, more mature and more motivated compared to students who study English for general purposes (Lee, 2018). Additionally, student autonomy entails students being cognizant of their individual ways of learning so that they can make use of their strengths and work upon their weaknesses (Ellis, 2010). Social and intrinsic motivation plays a crucial role in students’ autonomy. Compared to other English language learners, EAP learners have to do additional self-access language learning for them to succeed in their English studies within a short span of time. To assist them with their self-access language learning, teachers ought to motivate them through their studies by offering them banks of self-access materials as well as keys, ideally uploaded in a reference/supporting online course, and equally personal assignments, projects or optional consultations with their teachers (Pennington & Richards, 2016). This method is regarded as the fundamental constituent of teaching EAP since it allows students to realize their needs and selves, it enables students to get determined to take responsibilities, exploit their cognitive skills, seek for information and knowledge independently, and enables learners to willingly communicate and work together with others and show compassion and responsiveness to others (Sugiharto, 2018). This can, as noted by Richards et al. (2013), be attained by being coached to make use of cognitive, metacognitive, social and communicative strategies.

6. Employing Blended Learning

Technologies in the teaching of EAP play a more crucial role than in any English learning and teaching sphere owing to the fact that teaching of EAP situations are better resourced compared to other situations of English learning and teaching (Ellis, 2010). Mori and Sanuth (2018) reason that blended learning (BL) is an ideal solution to self-access language learning since the approach allows teachers and students to work collective to better the quality of teaching and learning. Lee (2018) points out that BL’s ultimate goal is to provide realistic and practical opportunities for teachers and learners to make learning useful, sustainable, independent and ever growing (Richards et al., 2013).

Several strengths of the BL approach to teaching and learning English have been pointed out. It contributes to EAP pedagogy since it backs up more interactive approaches, like but not limited to face-to-face teaching (Sugiharto, 2018). Thus, it encourages collaborative learning since educators and students have the opportunity of working together on academic goals and projects at any time and from anywhere (Ellis, 2010). Similarly, the approach deepens students’ intercultural cognizance since it puts educators, students, and researchers from anywhere across the world together (Sugiharto, 2018). Murchadha and Flynn (2018) also add that the BL approach minimizes costs of learning and teaching since learners do not have to take on so many frequent journeys to finish their education.

Nonetheless, some limitations have been associated with the BL approach to learning and teaching English. BL is demanding and time-consuming in terms of creation of materials and evaluation and preparation (Lee, 2018). Similarly, both teachers and students sometimes have limited skills and knowledge concerning the use of know-how, and technical glitches are likely to occur at any moment (Sugiharto, 2018). Lastly, learners’ study skills ad and knowledge are usually insufficiently developed to assist them in benefiting maximally from the BL approach.

An example of the BL approach that I have come across is where a teacher decided that all audio-based undertakings (like oral comprehension and listening comprehension) took place during classroom sessions whereas all written text-based undertakings took place online (like essay writing and reading comprehension). Similarly, my teacher at one point required us to have all our written assignments, like essays, submitted through an online course platform and self-study of further reference reading done online. In the subsequent class sessions, our teacher and we discussed particular challenges/goals we encountered while we worked online. The then took turn to illuminate errors that we may have made during our assignments.

7. Integrating Collaborative and Cooperative Learning

The names cooperative and collaborative learning are often times used interchangeably since both favour small-group active learner engagement. Nevertheless, collaborative learning can occur any time learners work together towards realizing an objective/goal, whereas in cooperative learning, learners work collectively within the same environment on a structurally defined project/task (Lee, 2018). Collaborative learning has the ability of enabling learners to develop their individual writing skills while working cooperatively. Similarly, collaborative learning upon an EAP course can serve as a worthy solution for learners of various cultural backgrounds (Mori & Sanuth, 2018). Whereas learners from certain ethnic extractions may be adamant to speak much in front other students from other ethnic extractions, but may be comfortable discussing things online (Sugiharto, 2018). Cooperative and collaborative approach of teaching EAP has been shown to have several benefits. It helps learners to raise their intercultural cognizance while working alongside other non-native students and native speakers on task completion (Costa & Crowther, 2018). Similarly, they allow learners to develop team work skills and interpersonal or relational social skills, like mediation skills as well as skills of attaining compromises (Li, 2017). The two approaches function to promote active learning and teaching approach whereby each student in a group has opportunities of contributing in a discussion (Mori & Sanuth, 2018). As such, they better student’s metacognitive and cognitive skills.

Nevertheless, critics have questioned the techniques particularly where learners are in mixed-capability groups. In such cases, more gifted learners may become bored or discouraged since teachers often try to meet the desires and needs of most students and prepare tasks that are appropriate to their adeptness and proficiency (Murchadha & Flynn, 2018). Such tasks, as Mori and Sanuth (2018) note, are likely to call largely for lower thinking capabilities and skills to be deployed.

Whereas some of the above approaches and practices have been employed both traditionally and presently, technology has enabled the development of more modern and innovative teaching approaches. First, some teachers teach via smart boards. During my studies, some teachers have made course contents visual and interactive. The smart boards helped in transforming the teaching and learning experiences into a collaborative and interactive experience since our teachers employed dynamic multimedia content to help in the conveyance of topics more effectively to us and making them a visual and engaging experience (Costa & Crowther, 2018).  In some cases, some of my lecturers have used the flipped classroom technique. Our lecturers made us active participants of the teaching and learning process by passing the responsibility of learning and teaching upon us (Mori & Sanuth, 2018). Our lecturers relegated the role of resource providers and we took the obligation of collecting concepts and information regarding various topics, assignments, and projects. Using various technological tools, we were encouraged by our lecturers to construct knowledge, complete information gaps and make conclusions regarding our own selves when and as was needed. His approach allowed us, the students, to be the masters of learning of various topics, subjects, and projects. Sometimes, our teachers also encouraged us in a collaboratively manner for various topics and projects. Staying away from the city within which our university was located, some of lecturers found it challenging to physically attend all the lessons due to issues like traffic jams. As such, they effectively assigned to us revision materials, organized us into groups, and assigned us individual study assignments among other strategies. They sometimes taught us over virtual links.

Conclusion

This paper has comprehensively and eloquently highlighted the various traditional and innovative pedagogies that are employed in the teaching and learning of English. From the study, it is evident that the traditional and innovative pedagogies of teaching English to non-native students are not mutually exclusive. That is, the employment of a traditional approach does not imply no employment of innovative pedagogy. As such, for maximum benefit, it would be appropriate to carefully integrate both traditional and innovative pedagogies to enhance non-native students’ English learning and teaching experiences and outcomes.

Part B

Introduction

The aim of this section is to develop a Learning Management Plan (LMP) to propose an engaging learning and teaching encounter as well as demonstrate my understanding of pedagogical content skill and knowledge relevant to my selected teaching specialization. As mentioned before, my selected teaching specialization is teaching English language to non-native students.

LMP and Its Pedagogical Benefits

LMP refers to a set of instructions that gives the training staff, instructors and managers with the information that is needed to conduct and lead learning processes in a performance improvement effort (Murchadha & Flynn, 2018). Sometimes called Training Management Plan (TMP) or Course Management Plan (CMP), LMP is created and employed by detailing all course materials into a commonsensical plan for teaching the performers/learners on a task. Additionally, the LMP informs the teachers, instructors, or trainers of factors that are related to a certain training/teaching process. New teachers or instructors who an LMP ought to be able to deliver the instruction contained in an LMP with no or little difficulties (Mahboob & Lin, 2016). The documentation shows the developers, trainers, and designers’ plan for actually conveying the course to the learners. LMP is used in accomplishing tasks like scheduling as well as notifying the learners, ensuring that all pre-reading materials are sent to the students ahead of time, and reserving classroom spaces (Murchadha & Flynn, 2018). It is also used in training the trainers/instructors to execute their roles during a learning process by providing the learners with time to rehearse and prepare (Costa & Crowther, 2018). Similarly, it is used in collecting all supplies and equipment and making sure that all course materials, like lesson outlines as well as learning activities are prepared ahead of time for the teachers (Murchadha & Flynn, 2018). Li (2017) adds that LMP is a way by which instructors ensure that they effectively plan for lessons with the aim of ensuring that their students reap the most from their classes. The improvement and advancement of communicative skills and knowledge in the teaching of English language has significantly increased.  It currently requires interactivity between teachers and teachers, students and teachers as well as students and students.

LMP for Training Instructors on How to Teach English to Non-Native Speakers

1. Description of the Learning Platform for the Course

The aim of this course is to teach English in the most effective and efficient way to instructors and teachers so that they can later teach non-native English speakers. Recent technological advancements, like fast internet connections, more affordable and powerful computers, and the dawn of Web 2.0, have made the implementation of asynchronous and synchronous learning tasks educationally viable (Costa & Crowther, 2018). For this reason, we are going to use Moodle (Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) to develop the LMP for teaching the English language to non-native speakers.

Moodle, which is available to users free of charge and has no license cost attached to, is a software package that is formulated to help educators in designing and creating online courses with prospects for dynamic interface and interaction (Choi, 2016). The Moodle uses will easily access the software and improve it as desired. And will allow learners and instructors to extend their classroom onto the web. It will also available a lot of classroom resources for learners and instructors. Teachers will have an opportunity of posting new items, assigning and collect assignments and posting e-resources and e-journals and many more (Li, 2017). Thus, it offers a dynamic kind of interaction between learners and students. Moodle entails a social constructionist approach to pedagogy, stressing that learners have the ability of contributing to learning experiences in different ways (Mahboob & Lin, 2016). Moodle makes this social constructionist strategy possible by making it possible for learners to post their opinions and comments on journal entries of their classmates or discuss various topics on an online discussion platform. There are five steps for the delivery and implementation of the learning platform: (1) gathering the LMP documents and creating the needed ones, (2) training the trainers, (3) preparing the learning atmosphere, (4) conducting the training, (5) documenting any deviations of the LMP.

2. Target Audience/Population

This course is developed and designed for teachers and instructors of the English language around the world who desire to better their lesson planning and teaching methods, particularly with respect to those teachers who are currently teaching or intending to teach non-native speakers of the English language. It is intended for teachers teaching primary, secondary or tertiary education levels.

3. When One Can Start the Course

The course will run for a span of three months. During each month, the instructors will be tested on the covered topics. After the whole course, the instructors will be subjected to a comprehensive examination, covering all that shall have been taught throughout the course. A certificate will then be given after the marking of the exams on two criteria: a pass or fail. Those who fail will be provided with free remedial courses before they are certified.