Answer

1. Non-verbal Communication across Cultures

   Semnani-Azad, Zhaleh & Adair, Wendi. The Display of ‘Dominant’ Nonverbal cues in Negotiation: The Role of Culture and Gender. International Negotiation. 2011, Vol. 16 Issue 3, p451-479. http://eds.a.ebscohost.com.chabotcollege.idm.oclc.org/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&sid=98c0e737-32d6-4b78-adbf-183689a4666d%40sdc-v-sessmgr03

   Nonverbal communication is one of the most important aspects of cultural communication that a member of a given culture usually acquires from a very young age. In communication, nonverbal cues differ from one culture to another, and the perceived meanings behind some interactions also change from one culture to culture. The variations that exist in the display rules that influence nonverbal communication across cultures have been documented extensively. According to Lustig et al (2018), these display rules govern the requirement, preference, permission or prohibition of verbal expressions and is therefore the standard upon which young children lie to interpret their nonverbal expressions (p. 135). The article by Semnani-Azad and Adair cited above explores the realm of nonverbal communication across cultures and explains the concept in the context of cross-cultural negotiation. The article takes notice of the fact that the cultural differences in the modes of nonverbal communication often present international negotiators with unprecedented challenges due to the failure by those negotiators to adapt or over-adapting to their fellows. To be able to mitigate the challenges in cross-cultural negotiations then, it is important that the potential of intercultural clashes as a result of misunderstandings in nonverbal communication are assessed and understood.

   From the outset, the writers begin by identifying some of the non-verbal elements in culture that may lead to cross-cultural misunderstandings. The first one identified is the cultural variation in display rules and the interpretation of non-verbal behaviour across cultures. Because display rules guide interpretations, differences in the same cause misunderstandings so often. Secondly, the cultural differences are evident in the negotiator’s facial expressions. A Ukrainian negotiator may start the negotiation with a stern and forlorn facial expression but ease with time. On the other hand, an American or British negotiator will start the negotiation with a smile and a relaxed countenance. The clash comes whereby the Ukrainian negotiator interprets the gesture as being pretentious while the British negotiator feels the Ukrainian is disinterested. Eye contact is also another area from where we can find variations in the display and interpretation. Negotiators from the Western countries like France may interpret the lack of eye contact as disingenuousness and deceit while a negotiator from the Eastern world like from Japan would interpret direct eye contact as an act of domination. Such misunderstandings would harm negotiations across these cultures.

   Important to the understanding of non-verbal communication across cultures in negotiation is the element of dominance. The article attempts to illustrate culture variation in behaviours that convey dominance. The element of dominance in negotiations is vital because to a lesser or greater degree, negotiations involve some element of competing interests and the cross-cultural distances may elicit behaviours that convey dominance. Behaviours like anger, a relaxed posture and the use of space for instance by spreading work all over the table are taken as displays of dominance. Besides pure competition, displays of dominance are also caused by negative emotions and interpersonal processes. If we take the use of space as an example, countries that have in the past embraced conquest and territorial expansion like Greta Britain, Spain and Germany can be said to have been expressing dominance. The other laid back ones are on the opposite end of the spectrum. When someone relaxes and sits back during a negotiation, it can interestingly be interpreted as a sign of dominance. When you enter an office and there is a roundtable discussion, you are more likely to judge the person who is laid back in his or her chair and in a relaxed posture as the superior. In terms of anger, people with dominance tend to get angry fast and display negative emotion. They may frown, yell, refuse to laugh or sit by and watch fixedly. Seeing them this way is an indication that they are setting themselves apart and displaying dominance. Anger is much more likely to be used by negotiators from the Asian nations like Korea while friendliness would be preferred by the West. The conflict comes about when the person from the Asian nation feels the Western negotiator is not serious and when the Western negotiator believes his Asian counterpart is pretentious. Intercultural competence would make these negotiators recognize the underlying display rules that guide the interpretation of such non-verbal cues in communication.

   The differences in cultural interpretation of display rules are also evident in the realm of conflict resolution. During conflict resolution, there are certain modes of behaviour that and non-verbal communication that suggest the thinking of those involved in the resolution. The issues of individualists, who tend to be more self-interested and thus more dominating, against collectivists who are less militant, can be explained in this part. A French student for instance would prefer a confrontational method to conflict resolution as compared to a student from Japan who would be more inclined towards avoidance in conflict resolution. In negotiations then, the French would tend to use more dominating approaches as compared to the Japanese.

   The writers also explore the idea of gender differences in the display of dominant non-verbal behaviour. Gender role stereotypes tend to perceive men as dominant and aggressive compared to females who are agreeable and nurturing. However, differences in the extent of these interpretations still exist. A person from Saudi Arabia would think it inappropriate for a female in the United States to openly display assertiveness and bold refusal. This is because even if the female in the United States is not expected to be as aggressive as the man, there still is a difference between her and the woman from Saudi Arabia.

   In conclusion, it is true that non-verbal communication varies from one culture to another. The variations that exist however are created by the differences in display rules that govern interpretation from one culture to another. International negotiators face challenges when they have to interpret the non-verbal signs and cues like facial expressions, gestures and posture that may portray varied levels of dominance. Misinterpretations of these cues often hamper cross-cultural communication, making it impossible to reach agreeable resolutions.

    

    

Answer

Training Needs Assessment

Introduction

Training and development are very instrumental, especially in the current operational context of most organizations that are endeavoring to enhance optimal throughput from the entire resourceful areas of the organization. Training improves employees’ expertise; it gives room and space for ascertaining key crucial extents of employees’ development (Towler, et al. 2014). In order to establish whether employees have the reading level necessary to succeed in a training program, I would employ various techniques as discussed in the following section.

First, I will conduct formal interviews and tests that call for reading abilities, experience, and skills. In specific, I would carry out written interviews and tests for the employees at the workplace that would incorporate excerpts that best suits the employees’ reading level for them to read and respond to its related questions. This excerpt, for example, will be based on the objectives of the training, the content, and prior practice settings. This training need evaluation would help to identify employees’ reading behavior and the gaps to be addressed in the training program, which in return would benefit the organization and employees from new training prospects (Gupta, 2011). This will enable me to identify what employees need to know in so far as technical or communication knowledge is concerned, and what they are capable to do in terms of mental or manual skills to realize the intended results and the disposition to execute their roles (attitude). However, it should be noted that, the ability of employees to understand what they read does not resonate with their reading level (Cain, 2011).

Furthermore, I would employ an employee performance appraisal interview to identify previous and contemporary performance to find out an area that needs action (Franco-Santos, Lucianetti, & Bourne, 2012). All these are written documents or material that need to be read and interpreted, hence will help in assessing the reading level essential to thrive in a training program.

On the other hand, I would use self-assessments, surveys (Garvin, Edmondson, Gino, 2008), and questionnaires. These are all techniques with a regular written format that call for reading. They can be structured based on the attitude of employees, employees’ job content, the standards of employee performance in line with efficiency and outcome, or on the expertise required to execute the roles of the job proficiently (Verrell, McCabe, 2015). In this analysis, I would be able to establish the reading level based on how they respond to the questionnaires and the way and the degree they use to evaluate themselves.

Lastly, I would employ focus group discussions which provide an open atmosphere for employees to engage in open written questions on various training requirements as I listen to the way they read and articulate their points out. I would ensure that the topics for discussion are all written, and they should be read within a given period of time before being discussed. This helps in knowing the reading level. Additionally, I would employ desk studies for employees on the organizational documents and the analysis of the records which uses secondary information to help in the identification of training needs (Garvin, Edmondson, Gino, 2008). Employees would be required to give their report which will help me establish their reading level essential to thrive in a training program.

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