Chemical hazard

Answer

1. Title: Butulinum Toxin

   Background

               Botulism is a severe neurological disease caused by botulinum neurotoxins. Neurotoxins are produced by Clostridium botulinum (Rasetti-Escargueil et al. 1; Tiwari para. 1). Botulism is a debilitating disease, which can disturb the nervous system leading to flaccid paralysis (Jeffery para. 1; Kanaan and Tarek 49).  It is also produced by atypical strains from non-Clostridium and other Clostridium species. Human are sensitive to toxin type A, B, and E, and to low effect from the F toxin type (Rasetti-Escargueil et al. 2). The toxin causes acute symmetric descending flaccid paralysis (Lonati et al. 2). Foodborne botulism is possible fatal illness, which is acquired by consuming contaminated food (Kryzowska-Firych et al. 609).

   Potential Role as Foodborne Chemical Hazard

               In the 18^th Century, sausage poisoning in South Germany was associated with botulinum toxin. The first complete report botulinum toxin food poisoning was reported between 1817 and 1822 by the district medical officer and German poet, Justin Kerner. Kerner termed the condition as ‘sausage poisoning’ or else ‘fatty poison’. In 1895, a botulism outbreak in a Belgian town resulted in discovery of the causative agent, Clostridium botulinum, by Dr. Emile Pierre van Ermengem, professor of bacteriology at the University of Ghent   (Choudhry et al. 3-4).

               Recent research and clinical experiences indicate that a major source of foodborne botulism is canning of foods at homes, with low acid content, such as corn, green beans, and beets. A common source of botulinum toxin in cold climates is fermented seafood. It is also established that oil-infused garlic, baked potatoes (particularly foil-wrapped ones), and chili peppers, are also significant sources of botulinum foodborne poisoning (Choudhry et al. 4).

   Butulism occurs through exposure to a contaminated environment and most often through ingestion of food that is contaminated with C. botulinum spores and stored in conditions which favors the growth of C.botulinum and production of the toxin (Rasetti-Escargueil et al. 2). There is high prevalence of botulism types D, C and the variants of DC as well as CD in wild and farmed birds, and to a lower degree in cattle, increases the risk of transmission of botulinum toxin to human beings (Rasetti-Escargueil et al. 2-3). Honey is another potential source of foodborne poisoning by botulinum toxin (Tamrin 157).

   Case Study

               In a case report, a 32-year-old female patient arrived into the emergency department with history of weakness and shortness of breath associated with hoarseness of voice, congestion, chest tightness, and difficulty swallowing. Signs and symptoms above were reported to have developed just in a few hours. She had presented 24 hours earlier complaining of diplopia for one day. The patient was put on symptomatic treatment; while investigations were being carried out. Hematological, magnetic resonance imaging, and biochemical tests all came out normal. However, her serum calcium levels were mildly decreased (7.9 mg/dL) (Choudhry et al. 5). A lumbar puncture became normal. Blood was sent for botulinum toxin test (Choudhry et al. 6). Her weakness was progressively worse, when a similar case presented to the hospital with similar presentation. Four days after admission, botulinum toxin test was confirmed positive and the she was started on treated with botulinum antitoxin. The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention established that the two patients had eaten nacho cheese at a gas station previous day before development of symptoms. A total of 10 cases were found to have had botulinum toxin from eating nacho cheese from the same gas station. One death was reported from the incident (Choudhry et al. 6).

   Proposed Solution

               Cases are treated with botulinum antitoxin as well as symptomatic treatment to promote recovery and survival (Choudhry et al. 6). Specific treatment is through administration of botulism antitoxin (Hellmich et al. para. 1). Bacterial growth is inhibited through refrigeration of food and drinks below 4°C, and by heating food above 121°C. Other strategies include setting food acidity at pH <4.5, and high water activity. The toxin can be destroyed by heating food or drinks at 85°C for ≥5 minutes; while spores are inactivated by hearing at 121°C at 15-20 lb/in² pressure for ≥20 minutes. In addition, proper food handling practices in improve for preventing botulism (Choudhry et al. 8). The safety of botulinum cosmetic injection should be ensured since in may lead to iatrogenic botulism (Fung et al. 356).

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Answer

Assessing Risk and Reward

The Nissan Motor Company is one of the leading automobile makers in the world. The Japanese carmaker has primarily enjoyed a successful run, allowing it to enter various regional and international markets such as the United States. However, the changing business environment was not favorable to the company in 2019. Notably, the cooperation recorded losses amounting to 7.8%. The experience pushed the management into making tough decisions, requiring almost all of its North American workforce to go for unpaid leaves.

In late 2019, the company announced that the decline in sales necessitated a two-day unpaid leave for the North American workers. The stated days for the vacation were January 2 and 3^rd    (Chicago Tribune, 2019).  Notably, this move was a crucial decision for the company because of its conflicting impacts. Whereas on the positive side, it could help the firm minimize expenses, it threatened to affect the public perception of the company regarding employee welfare.

The rewards for the decision involved cutting expenses by not paying the workers on leave, which eventually would translate into reduced expenses. Another reward was that the decision could allow the company to optimize performance by evaluating employee performances then developing new milestones. However, on the low side, the company risked affecting its public image and brand name, especially in the North American market. As per Chakravorti (2010), the way an organization treats its employees influences the firm's public perception. Thus, Nissan risked eliciting a negative public perception. With a distorted public image, the company could fail to revive its declining sales.

I would have advised the management of Nissan to utilize the Predictive Analytic perspective in determining the right decision to take. Ideally, the approach tries to predict what might happen in the future if particular decisions or actions are undertaken at the moment (Traymbak & Aggarwal, 2019). Looking at the situation at Nissan, the company needed to develop a goal such as increasing sales. After that, they would have made decisions aimed at realizing the set goal. In this regard, the predicted outcome could give the management an overview of whether more risks existed or significant rewards could be realized.

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