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• Implications of Search and Rescue (SAR) on Disaster Response

  The term selected from the textbook index for the purpose of this paper is Search and Rescue. Search and Rescue typically deals with two aspects whenever there are disasters or accidents: the search for and aid provision to those who find themselves in distress or those who are in danger. In terms of disaster response then, Search and Rescue is one of the most important aspects geared towards minimising fatalities and reducing the danger that the disaster poses to people. This paper looks at Search and Rescue in light of its disaster response implications. It considers what to expect in case of disasters, human behaviour during disasters, the initial response during disasters, caring for the injured, dead and distraught, overcoming challenges in disasters, the technological element of disaster management and future predictions of disasters. All these are considers from the perspective of Search and Rescue. Search and Rescue is a vital component of disaster response and its effective and timely organisation can be the difference between life and death.

  What to Expect When Disaster Strikes

  Disaster can come in different geographic locations and from various sources. In order to properly organize and execute Search and Rescue (SAR), the responders must have a thorough knowledge of the sources from which disasters can strike. The importance of understanding the sources of disasters is because each context of disaster presents its uniqueness to the Search and Rescue teams. The rescue strategies that would be applied in case of cave rescue have to be different from those of geological rescue, maritime rescue or combat search and rescue. These contexts have to be studied differently.

  According to McEntire (2015), there are a variety of hazards that Search and Rescue teams have to understand before they can begin the work of helping those in imminent danger and distress. The first one he identifies is natural hazards. These include disasters like floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, tornadoes and tsunamis. McEntire (2015) seems to suggest that these disasters are the ones that are most common. Understanding them would be a vital step in disaster response. We then have atmospheric hazards that result from dust, chemical vapours, fogs or mists. The threat of dust clouds all the way from the Saharan desert would be a good case in point. There then are geological hazards that may result from snow, rock or air. Seismic and volcanic hazards are also considered in this regard and include disasters than earthquakes, tremors or volcanic ash has on a population.

  Other hazards include wildfire hazards, biological hazards, technological hazards, industrial hazards, environmental hazards, nuclear hazards, structural collapse hazards, computer and transportation hazards. The risk of disasters can also come from mass shootings that occur with relative regularity within the United States, panic flights, riots (the likes of which followed in the wake of the death of George Floyd) terrorism and war. Bronfman et al. (2019) assert that to have the fuller picture of what disaster entails, SAR teams have learn about the complexity of each type of hazard, the risks involved and the potential changes that these disasters may bring. Only then can they adequately respond to the disaster.

  Human Behaviour in Disasters

  Whenever disaster strikes, people behave differently. There are news crews who are interested in beating the day’s topicality by reporting live from disaster zones. Some of them end up sensationalising the news, preventing the public from having the clear picture of what the disaster really looks like. To fully and comprehensively respond to disasters, SAR bodies have to anticipate how people will behave whenever disaster strikes and how such behaviour may have been conditioned by the previous experiences.

  McEntire (2015) asserts that Hollywood and the Media play a central role as far as human behaviour during disasters is concerned. In the past, there have been movies made on disasters and the management of such disasters. The potential of having such strategies replicated by those who are attempting to escape the consequences of a disaster are high. SAR teams must have a full picture of how Hollywood has conditioned disaster preparedness and response. The Media on the other hand may have a positive or negative effect during disasters. The manner of disaster reporting by news organisations has the potential of causing panic or calm. Sensationalised news lead to unmitigated panic that can put more lives in danger. In addition, the desire by some crews to be in the thick of the disaster can end up putting their lives in danger too, necessitating SAR activities for them as well.

  SAR teams have to be well versed with the myths that surround disaster management and response and what people wrongly believe in case of disasters. The doomsday, inevitability theories have to be fully understood and appreciated by the SAR teams. Accordingly then, Sakurai and Murayama (2019) suggest that these teams must also take into consideration the fact that there is potential for exaggeration as a result of misinformation that is reported over the Media or through personal accounts. In every disaster scenario, there are those places that form the core and the periphery of the disaster zones. The experiences of different zones can be over applied in disaster estimation, leading to misinformation on the severity of the disaster. What SAR teams have to do is to correctly analyse and anticipate human behaviour during disasters so that rescue efforts are not thwarted by the misunderstandings that the media, Hollywood, misinformation or myths cause.

  Initial Disaster Response

  The possibility of having a higher disaster death toll or risk to more people can be greatly reduced in case the initial response measures are done correctly. Initial response is to do with the correct detection of the hazard that puts lives in danger, the warning systems adopted and implemented before the disaster, the evacuation strategy and sheltering of those exposed to the disaster.

  Warnings are an essential part of initial disaster response. McEntire (2015) admits that when timely done, warnings have the potential of saving more lives than even the recovery itself. We can clearly see why. The timely issuing of warnings is essential because for many people, this is the first indication that disaster will soon strike. SAR teams have to understand the warning strategies that were applied by the disaster management teams so that a coordinated search and rescue operation can be conducted. It is important for Search and Rescue that the warning systems that are adopted do not lean much on the scaring tactics that may cause panic and hamper evacuation but that may enable safe relocation. Where possible, warnings ought to be issued at the appropriate time and with the recommended tone.

  Evacuation is the other aspect that SAR teams must make themselves familiar with whenever there are disasters. With the most suitable means of evacuation decided, the SAR teams can concentrate on getting as many people as possible out of the disaster zone. Usually, and as McKnight and Linnenluecke (2016) also support, the most suitable means of evacuation should also be the fastest and relevant within the disaster zone. SAR teams have to understand and manage unusual behaviour during evacuations that may boarder around panic and distress. Some of the people being evacuated may want to save other things too, but they have to be made to understand that lives are to be saved before anything else. The SAR teams have to also take into consideration essential procedures that guide a humane evacuation, taking into consideration the interest of the most vulnerable and children first before others are evacuated. A procedural and systematic evacuation is also necessary for the SAR to determine how many more people may potentially be still trapped within the disaster zone so that a rescue plan can be put into action as quickly as possible.

  Once evacuated, it is also important that the people who have been evacuated are humanely sheltered. Most of these people have sometimes lost homes, houses and property. They have nowhere else to go. The psychological toll that the disaster may take on them can be eased by ensuring that they have some form of shelter as they plan on how to get back to normal. SAR has to work with other humanitarian organizations and individuals to ensure that the rescued and evacuated people have some form of shelter. This is to avoid situations where one is saved from one disaster only to be exposed to the others.

  Caring for the Injured, Dead and Distraught

  The core of Search and Rescue is to care for the injured, retrieve the dead and save the distraught from the brunt of disaster. Search and rescue can be done on the ground, in the mountains, caves, urban areas, combat zones and maritime areas. Depending on where the search is done, the intensity of injuries, the number of fatalities or the trapped people in various levels of distress has to be considered by the SAR teams. During SAR operations, people behave differently, and this different behaviour can hamper the search and rescue efforts. The panics that those in distress and trapped express can make them take actions that jeopardize their chances of getting rescued. While carrying out Search and Rescue, the teams must take into consideration the levels of vulnerability of those to be rescued, those that need emergency treatment and those who can be rescued later. McEntire (2015) admits that in every disaster zone, the teams that are involve in the search and rescue must be properly coordinated to ensure that there is no confusion among these teams in terms of the overall strategy and rescue efforts.

  Essential during the search and rescue process is the offering of emergency treatment and triage. Search and rescue teams have to work together with the disaster medical assistance teams to provide emergency medical services and procedures to the injured people during a disaster. Such emergency services may include measures to stop bleeding or enhance breathing. Often, the difference between life and death for many who are rescued is not that they are got to medical facilities far away from the disaster zone, but that they are offered the timely emergency medical services that they need to survive a little longer. This is why it is paramount that there is strategic cooperation between the search and rescue teams with the medical personnel who must be on standby to attend to the injured.

  Often during disasters, there are mass fatalities. It is a situation that needs coordinated efforts with non-sentimental response so that the fatalities can be removed and taken to mortuaries. Bartholdson and von Schreeb (2018) admit that it is challenging to handle incidences of mass fatalities as they distract the rescuers from finding other survivors in time. The problem of mass fatalities also has ripple effects on the survivors in that they may be vulnerable to PTSD and stressful feelings of loss. Search and rescue teams must work hand in hand with hospitals and counsellors to alleviate the PTSD symptoms and put the survivors on the path to a quicker recovery.

  Overcoming Challenges in Disasters

  There are a number of typical challenges in disaster response and management that the Search and Rescue operations must be aware of. Such challenges revolve around the issues of communication and coordination, decision making during rescue operations, transport and logistics, dealing with special groups, politics and record keeping. Karagiannis and Synolakis (2017) assert that to have a successful search and rescue means to understand these challenges and apply the needed mechanisms to mitigate the challenges.

  Communication and coordination is essential in every search and rescue effort. McEntire (2015) admits that there has to be proper coordination between first responders, disaster medical teams, surrounding hospitals and the local leadership. This is because in the course of search and rescue, there may be emergency needs for information on geography or need for a particular equipment that may not be easily availed with little coordination. It is through the application of efficient communication and coordination that decision-making can be done. In disasters, the decision making is essential because there is no much to evaluate the risks and assess all conditions. The decision making can therefore make or break the operation because with poor decisions, even the rescuers themselves may be put in grave danger.

  The transport and logistics can also be a challenge to search and rescue especially in zones where the disaster prevents visibility or leads to destruction of road like an earthquake. When this happens, even the injured rescued people are in danger because they cannot get to the hospitals in time. Solving the transport and logistical challenges require the use of multiple transport options including air when the physical infrastructure is destroyed.

  Dealing with special groups during disasters also comes with its own unique challenges. The gender question for example, where women are to be rescued first or in an area with majority and minority populations is a case in point. The decision on who to rescue first can be a potentially contentious issue especially when one group feels that they were the last option for the rescue and therefore disproportionately suffered as a result. According to Fadgen, Kozu and Prescott (2020), children, the elderly, the disabled and other vulnerable groups can also bring in questions of special care and treatment that may not be readily provided by the rescue teams, causing apparent dissatisfaction.

  The politics around search and rescue during disasters is also a challenge to disaster management. There often are legal concerns and constitutional rights that those within a disaster zone may feel are not addressed appropriately. There have often been cases where people sue for negligence in courts of law thus derailing future efforts towards search and rescue.

  Technology and Disaster Response

  Technology is an essential component of search and rescue strategy in disaster response. This is because the rescuers need to communicate with each other, direct and coordinate rescue efforts in the most organized way within a chaotic environment. Sometimes, the use of technology is essential in helping locate where any survivors are and the places where people live within a given area. Technology assesses how equipment like the radio, the internet, the ACU-1000 helps in promoting interoperability.

  Several technological devices and mechanisms are essential for search and rescue efforts. Sakurai and Murayama (2019) aver that the Geographic Information System (GIS) can be used to locate human dwellings and the possibility of finding survivors or for the purpose of swift evacuation. Information Command System, which McEntire (2015) identifies as core in search and rescue can be used to control, coordinate and command emergency response. An Emergency Operations Centre (EOC) can also be set up to coordinate disaster response efforts, including efforts towards search and rescue.

  Overall, communication and coordination of Search and Rescue efforts needs the establishment and availing of proper technological devices to help in locating people and evacuating them. Through the use of technology, the rescue efforts become more coordinated and efficient thereby minimising the damage caused and the lives that may be lost from the disaster.

   

   

  Future Disaster Management

  According to McEntire (2015), the regularity and disaster incidences are on the rise. The intensity and damages caused by these disasters have also gone up. More and more people find themselves in situations where they have to be helped out of disasters that face them. The Search and Rescue efforts in disasters must therefore change to reflect the changing demands of disaster response. These teams have to not only respond to the emerging demands of the immediate situation but also predict what disaster preparedness must look like in the future.

  It is important to understand natural disasters and see how much they have changed over time. The issue of climate change has exacerbated the frequency and severity of natural disasters. This calls on the search and rescue teams to respond appropriately to the demands of the changing environment. Similarly, search and rescue must find ways of responding to the emerging disasters like terrorism situations without putting the lives of responders in too much danger.

  In addition, search and rescue has to respond to the growing problem of environmental degradation, global warming and climate change. Disasters that emanate from pole reversals, asteroid strikes, biological threats, and computer threats have significantly increased people’s exposure to disasters. However, an increasingly urbanised environment, growing population, sensitivity to diversity issues, income inequality and legal considerations still affect the capability of Search and Rescue teams to perform their duties efficiently. Moving into the future, search and rescue must find a way of striking a balance between these issues and the obligation of saving lives when disaster strikes.

   

  Conclusion

  As discussed above, Search and Rescue (SAR) is an essential part of disaster response strategy. In order to efficiently respond to disasters, Search and Rescue teams have to take into consideration various elements including what to expect in case of disasters, human behaviour during disasters, the initial response during such disasters and caring for the injured, dead and distraught. In addition they have to see ways of overcoming challenges in disasters, utilize technology during search and rescue and evaluate potential future predictions of disasters. These Search and Rescue teams have to work together with various disaster management teams so as to lead to a comprehensive disaster management and response strategy.

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