Ethnic Diversity and Health " How Fair is Britain

Answer

ETHNIC DIVERSITY AND HEALTH ASSIGNMENT

Task1: Informal Report

In the 1960s, racism was blatantly supported in Britain with people being denied employment outrightly in the regions of Birmingham because of the colors of their skin (Clair and Denis 2015, p.858). Recently, more than 50 years since then, although employers are not explicit about racism, they still refuse to consider people for jobs just because of their ethnicity and background as opposed to their knowledge, skills, and abilities (Soylu Yalcinkaya et al. 2017, p.900). According to Memon et al. (2016), in the health and social care sector, racism applies not only for the workers, but also in the provision of healthcare services. Racial inequality in the British workplace has subsequently resulted in discrimination. This report provides an analysis of the historical roots of racism and the differences between cultural and institutional racism.

Findings

Various reports were reviewed which provided statistics on the issue of racism in Britain, especially in the healthcare sector. Additionally, scholarly sources were examined which touched on the roots of racism. The following are the findings of the examination of the reports and the literature sources.

2.1. Historical Roots of Racism

One of the historical roots of racism are the cultural beliefs and practices which are held by a significant number of residents in the country. Notably, racism has arisen from the fact that people in Britain come from different ethnic and racial groups. For instance, Clair and Denis (2015, p.859) assert that the white Britons have viewed their cultures as superior to others, which have resulted in people from other backgrounds being discriminated against. According to the “How Fair is Britain” report produced in 2010, whereas the British, Chinese and Indian men are more likely to occupy managerial jobs, people from the African and Bangladeshi cultures tend to be employed in the unskilled jobs (see Figure 1 below) (Equality and Human Rights Commission, 2010). As such, the cultures of individuals have become one root of racism. Additionally, according to Macpherson (1999), some of the origins of racism are in the investigative agencies, especially in racially motivated killings.

Table 1: employment rate for the working-age population by gender and ethnicity in the UK in 2006/08. Source: Equality and Human Rights Commission, 2010, p.401.

The next root of racism is how the workforce promotes diversity. In specific, diversity does not entail organizations just making policies on diversity or the recruitment and selection of their workers. On the contrary, diversity involves the actualization of those diversity policies. However, in the 2015 report by the equality and human rights commission dubbed “Is Britain Fairer,” there are disparities in the manner in which African and Caribbean men, as well as women’s experience of mental healthcare diagnosis and support, are handled (Equality and Human Rights Commission 2015). Additionally, the existing policies and structures in organizations have been a cause (Ulmer, Harris, and Steffensmeier 2012, p.799). For instance, in some healthcare organizations, there are no clear policies on how to ensure diversity.

2.2. Differences Between Cultural and Institutional Racism

Racism can either be grouped in the form of individual racism, cultural racism, or institutional racism. Individual racism has a close relationship with racial prejudice. Several differences can be found in institutional and cultural racism. Cultural racism occurs when one group (mostly the dominant group) of people in the society assumes the power of the definition of cultural values of the society (Clair and Denis 2015, p.859). In such a case, there is a preference for the culture, values, and heritage of some groups as opposed to others. Additionally, there is also an imposition of one culture on others. For instance, in Britain, when the cultures and values of the white people are viewed as superior to those of minority communities such as the African and Caribbean, then cultural racism arises. Cultural racism can also occur from some elements such as social values, customs, languages, beliefs and practices, and religious practices (Onwuachi-Willig 2016). For instance, when some traditions and religious views are used to define cultural values in a society, then racism arises.

Institutional racism, on the other hand, is a consequence of laws, policies, and practices on those who belong to specific racial groups. Institutional racism can arise from the intentional acts of racism such as the limiting immigration based on the assumptions that increased immigration will have adverse effects on the society (Ulmer, Harris, and Steffensmeier 2012, p.800). For instance, with Brexit, immigration will be limited based on the assumption that people in the UK will lose jobs with increased immigration. Additionally, political support for specific policies and laws could lead to institutional racism (Hardeman, Medina, and Kozhimannil 2016, p.2113). For instance, supporting laws and policies which make one cultural group superior to others is a demonstration of institutional racism.

Conclusion

Although racism in Britain is not as explicit as was back in the 1960s, people are still being denied employment because of their race as opposed to their skills, talents, and efforts. Some of the root causes of racism include the cultures of a particular society and the policies and laws in institutions. In health and social care, racism arises from the lack of systems which demand diversity in employment as well as the provision of healthcare and support. Differences exist between cultural bigotry and institutional racism. Whereas cultural racism arises from one group in the society exerting its customs, beliefs, and values over other cultures, institutional racism develops from policies and laws enacted to make some cultures superior to others.

[Word Count: 882 Words]

Task 2: Essay

Ethnic diversity is one of the factors which has for some time been a key explanatory variable in the determination of variations in health outcomes among people from different races. For instance, in Britain, based on the “How Fair is Britain” report, people of color, especially Africans and the Caribbean face much more discrimination in the work environment compared to the Chinese and white Britons (Equality and Human Rights Commission 2015). The same ethnicity can be seen in the healthcare sector. In specific, ethnicity affects not only healthcare but also access to it. For example, differences in ethnicity have been associated with healthcare service uptake, disease prevalence, communication issues, and culture and attitudes which have affected access to healthcare and barriers to quality healthcare (Clair and Denis 2015, p.859). One perfect example of such an aspect is the evidence of inequality of access to hospital care for the ethnic minority groups such as the south Asians. Various sociological explanations have been used to discuss the disparities in health based on ethnicity. This task 2 of the paper will present and evaluate the sociological explanations.

• Biological as Opposed to Cultural Basis for Differentiating Groups

The various forms of inequalities in health have been pegged on the biological basis for differentiating groups. In specific, the concept of the biological essentialism of race holds that there are specific genetic differences between diverse racial groups which makes some groups of people naturally inferior to others (Ulmer, Harris, and Steffensmeier 2012, p.799). The inferiority based on the biological examination relates to the ability of certain races, their fitness for specific positions, and their levels of intelligence. In most cases, the superior groups are the dominant ones, which lead to the legitimization of various forms of racial oppression, including slavery, segregation, and colonialism. Biological racial differences have been used in the justification of racial oppression as well as the endorsement of dominant values and beliefs and hence inequality in the society based on the races and ethnicities of people (Templeton 2013, p.262). However, the cultural basis for the differentiation of groups is pegged on the belief that the essential superiority of one’s cultural practices makes the non-dominant practices inferior. In societies where biological aspects are used to differentiate groups, then discrimination and inequalities in health access and healthcare provision are found (Ulmer, Harris, and Steffensmeier 2012, p.800). However, such a basis is unfounded considering that there are no scientific studies which have demonstrated the superiority of one race over the others based on genes.

• Significance of Race as a Social Definition

Despite some scholars arguing that race is a biological aspect, sociologists have viewed race as a social construct. The proponents of race as a social construct argue that there are no genes of a cluster of genes which are similar to blacks, whites, or other people of color (Soylu Yalcinkaya et al. 2017, p.900). How race is perceived across different societies differs and shifts with both experience and time. As such, the definition of race is not rigid but rather based on the specific society. For instance, in the interracial black-white relationships/unions/marriages, there is a shift in how the couple understands individual racial identity. However, Ulmer, Harris, and Steffensmeier (2012, p.799) state that in other societies, there is a belief that coming from a certain race (such as being white) means having some privileges such as quality health and education, irrespective of the level of income. Understanding race as a social definition has the significance of ensuring that the policies and measures taken are not universal but rather based on how a society views race (Soylu Yalcinkaya et al. 2017, p.900). Additionally, race as a social definition ensures that race is not just observed from a biological angle, but also the power differential between groups, personal factors, and even the interaction between individual and social factors.

3.1. Factors Contributing to Ethnic Disadvantage

            In the British society, various factors are responsible for ethnic disadvantages, especially for minority groups. One of those factors is the various laws and policies which have been passed and adopted. For instance, although some of the laws such as the Equality Act seek to ensure a just and equal society, they fail to understand the many entrenched ethnic prejudices in British society. Additionally, Clair and Denis (2015, p.858) opine that the dominant cultures and practices of the dominant groups in society contribute to the ethnic disadvantage. For instance, the presence of institutional racism which comes from the beliefs and customs of the dominant race in the society has led to the minority ethnic groups being discriminated and disadvantaged. For example, when the domain beliefs and practices of the white people in the British society are used to inform policies and laws in the country, then such aspects lead to the minority cultures being disregarded (Onwuachi-Willig 2016). Moreover, disadvantages; such as unequal healthcare access result from the inability of institutions to have processes and structures which promote ethnic diversity and multiculturalism.

3.1.1. Sociological Explanations of Racism

Race is a term which denotes a group of people who have both differences and similarities in biological traits considered to be socially significant, which leads to people being treated differently because of such factors. However, Memon et al. (2016, p.e012337) define ethnicity as a group of people with shared perspectives, cultural practices, and even customs which makes them belong to a common group. Various sociological explanations have been used to explain racism. Social scientists argue that race is a social construct Soylu (Yalcinkaya et al. 2017, p.900). At first, race was deployed in the definition and description of people and societies in the same manner in which ethnicity and national identify is defined. However, a biological meaning was used to explain racism in the 17^th and 18^th centuries. As such, racism was explained from a natural categorization system of the human species (Clair and Denis 2015, p.860). However, the sociological explanation is that race is not natural and the assertions that some people can assert higher moral intellectual and spiritual superiority is misguided. The sociological explanations of racism are justified because they associate race with certain social aspects as opposed to genes and other scientific processes (Onwuachi-Willig, 2016).

4.1. Recent Accounts of Ethnic Disadvantage in Healthcare Provision

The UK Department of Health reports that there is a tendency of some people within ethnic minority groups to report worse health outcomes compared to the generation population. The 2004 Health Survey from England showed that 15 percent of people from Bangladeshi reported bad and very bad health compared to 6 percent of the general population (Kings Fund 2006, p.8). Additionally, some of the health conditions and diseases are more prevalent among some ethnic groups compared to others. For instance, the prevalence of heart disease and diabetes among south Asians was found to be five times higher composted to that of the general population (Memon et al. 2016, p.e012337). The accounts for the ethnic disadvantage can be attributed to healthcare access by those groups. Additionally, genetic and cultural explanations have also been used to explain the differences. Evidence exists to show the NHS has failed to cater well for the diverse British population. In specific, there is a consistent proof of high levels of dissatisfaction among minority groups compared to the white majority (Soylu Yalcinkaya et al. 2017, p.900). Additionally, glimpses exist of serious lapses in healthcare provision. For instance, there is laxity among providers to respond to the basic needs of minority groups, which makes the minority ethnic communities disadvantaged.

Conclusion

            In Britain, inequalities exist in health based on the ethnicity of an individual. Whereas those from the white majority get better healthcare services, minority groups have reported high rates of diseases and barriers in access to quality health services. Some of the explanations which have been used to explain the inequalities are the biological and cultural perspectives. In specific, the proponents of the biological explanation argue that some races are superior to others based on the genes of such people, their level of intelligence, and abilities. However, the explanation of race a social construct argue that different societies have different ways in which they perceive racism. Sociological explanations of racism are that race is distinct from ethnicity and that race is not natural. Recent accounts show that people from minority communities in the UK have a high prevalence of diseases coupled with more barriers in their access to healthcare services. Such disadvantages are based on the ethnic groups of individuals which is a demonstration of the failure of the Department of Health and the entire British society to embrace diversity.

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