QUESTION
Depends on what you write
Two pdfs and three articles need to read, then write the paper.
No other materials can be used.
In a cohesive essay of 1800-2000 words, closely analyze at least three of the primary source texts listed below in comparison with other course material (Tanner, other assigned Mair texts, lectures), to explain how Buddhism challenged the existing order of Chinese society between 200 and 900.
- The Lotus Sutra (pdf)
- The Platform Sutra (Mair 47)
- A Memorial on the Relic of the Buddha (Mair 52)
- Political and Economic Problems Concerning Buddhism (Mair 56)
- Biography of the Compassionate One of Xiangshan (pdf)
Guidelines:
- The first paragraph of your essay must state your thesis.
- Explain each of the three primary sources you’ve chosen to focus on. Why are they relevant to the topic? Represent each source accurately and always be specific in
your arguments.
- Write in your own words and minimize use of quotations. You may quote relevant short passages (10 words or less), as long as you explain the quotation in your own words.
- Citation examples:
■ To cite Tanner page 30: (Tanner, 30)
■ To cite Mair chapter 1 page 8: (Mair 1, 8)
■ To cite pdf course texts, abbreviate their titles as “Lotus” and “Biography” plus the page number: (Lotus, 446)
- Do not use any material from outside the course.
52 | Han Yu, “A Memorial on the
Relic of the Buddha”
king as´oka (269?–232 b.c.e.) of India allegedly built numerous stupas in many lands to hold
Buddhist relics known as s´arı¯ra. In China, the custom of building stupas was introduced together
with Buddhism. During the Tang (618–907) dynasty, the best-known Buddhist relics were those
contained in the stupa of the Famen Monastery (Famen si) north of the present-day county seat
of Fufeng, Shaanxi Province, and sixty-five miles west of Xi’an (Tang Chang’an). A recent archaeological
excavation carried out in 1987 brought to light four Buddhist relics, all finger bones, from
the “underground palace” of the stupa. One of them was identified as human, and the other three
were imitation relics known as “shadow bones.” The former is believed to be a “true relic” of the
Buddha (plate 62). In Tang times, the true relic was brought out of the monastery periodically for
display and worship on seven separate occasions. In 819, it was brought out for the sixth time
when the reigning emperor was Xianzong (r. 805–820). Han Yu (768–824), the most prominent
stylist and prose-writer of his day, took this occasion to present this memorial to the emperor 1 in
which he expressed his anti-Buddhist stand. On reading the memorial, Xianzong was so incensed
that he ordered Han’s execution. Later, Han’s penalty was reduced to banishment to Chao Prefecture
(in present-day Chaozhou, Guangdong) in the far south. Han Yu wrote another memorial
as prefect of Chao Prefecture to express repentance and ask for mercy. (While in Chaozhou,
Han Yu also wrote a mock memorial addressed to a crocodile that had been terrorizing the area.)
He was subsequently transferred to Yuan Prefecture (in present-day Yichun, Jiangxi) before his
return to the capital.—VCX
Your servant says: 2
He humbly believes that Buddhism is a religion of the barbarians, which spread to the Middle
Kingdom in Later Han (25–220 c.e.) times. It did not exist in antiquity. In the ancient past, the
Yellow Emperor (Huang Di) reigned for 100 years, and lived 110 years; Shaohao reigned for 80
years, and lived 100 years; Zhuanxu reigned for 79 years, and lived 98 years; Di Ku reigned for 70
years, and lived 105 years; Di Yao reigned for 98 years, and lived 118 years; both Di Shun and Yu
lived 100 years. This was a time of great tranquility under heaven. The people enjoyed peace, happiness,
and longevity while there was no Buddha in the Middle Kingdom.3
Thereafter King Tang of Yin too lived 100 years. Tang’s grandson Taiwu reigned for 75 years
while Wuding reigned for 59 years. History does not record their ages, which, judging by their
reign periods, should not be shorter than 100 years.4 King Wen of Zhou lived 97 years, and King
Wu 93 years, while King Mu reigned for 100 years.5 During this period the law of the Buddha did
not enter the Middle Kingdom, nor did Buddha worship bring about all this.
During the reign of Emperor Ming of Han (r. 57–75 c.e.) the law of the Buddha began to
make its appearance.6 Emperor Ming reigned for only 18 years. Thereafter chaos and destruction
continued, and reign periods were short-lived. During and after the period of the Song
(420–479), Qi (479–502), Liang (502–557), Chen (557–589), and the Yuan Wei (Northern Wei,
386–534) dynasties, as people became more devoted to Buddha worship, reign periods became
356 | Han Yu, “A Memorial on the Relic of the Buddha”
particularly short.7 Only Wudi of Liang (r. 502–549) reigned for 48 years. During his reign on
three occasions he gave up his own body for the Buddha. At the Ancestral Temple sacrifices, he
stopped making animal offerings, and limited himself to one meal of vegetables and fruits every
day.8 With Hou Jing (502–552) closing in on him,Wudi ended up dying of starvation at Taicheng.9
His country too was destroyed soon after. Buddha worship is for the purpose of bringing good
fortune, but it only results in more misfortune. In view of this, it is evident that the Buddha is not
worth worshiping.
Upon taking over the imperial mantle from the Sui, [Tang ] Gaozu (Li Yuan, r. 618–626) discussed
the elimination [of Buddhism].10 At that time, the ministers and courtiers were not farsighted
enough to comprehend the profundity of the Way of the ancient sages and the exigencies
of the past and present so as to elucidate the sagely wisdom and correct that abuse. So the
effort did not go any further, to your servant’s constant regret.
I humble myself in front of the divine, holy, brilliant, and martial presence of Your Imperial
Majesty, who is wise and sagely, and excels in literary accomplishment and the art of war. In the
past thousands of years, no one can compare with [Your Majesty]. Not long after you ascended
the throne you began to disallow ordinations of people as Buddhist monks and nuns or Daoist
adepts. Nor did you permit the creation of Buddhist monasteries and Daoist abbeys.11 Once your
servant believed that the wish of Gaozu would certainly be realized under Your Majesty’s hand.
Nowadays, even though that has not come to pass, there is no reason to encourage it (Buddhism)
to flourish again.
Now I have heard that Your Majesty instructed various monks to greet the Buddhist relic at
Fengxiang, mounted a loft-building to view it, and took it in both hands into the Great Within
(Danei) (see map on page 350).12 In addition, [Your Majesty] ordered various monasteries to take
turns to receive and worship the relic.
Although your servant is extremely foolish, he still knows that Your Majesty will not be
deluded by the Buddha into worshiping [the relic] like this in the hope of achieving happiness and
auspiciousness. This is simply a frivolous gimmick and a deceitful and exotic spectacle set up for
the officials and commoners of the capital in an attempt to humor some people at a time when
the harvest is good and people are happy. It cannot be true that [Your Majesty], so sagely and
brilliant, believes in this sort of thing.
However, the people are inherently ignorant, susceptible to delusion, and difficult to reason
with. If they should behold Your Majesty like this, they would talk about devotedly worshiping
the Buddha. Everyone would say, “Even the great sage Son of Heaven is devout in his faith; who
are we the ordinary people to grudge our own bodies and lives?” They would sear the tops of
their heads and burn their fingers,13 gathering in crowds of tens or hundreds. They would doff
their clothes to scatter their money, from morning till night. They would emulate one another,
for fear of being left behind. Old and young would all run about [doing this], abandoning their
proper occupations.
If this is not henceforth banned, it (the relic) will go the rounds among various monasteries. By
then, there will be people who sever their arms and cut out their flesh to make offerings [to the
relic]. Corrupting our accepted mores and customs and making ourselves a laughingstock everywhere—
this is no small matter.
The Buddha was originally a man of the barbarians who did not speak the language of the
Middle Kingdom and was dressed in clothes of a different cut from ours. Neither did he cite the
edifying discourses of the ancient sovereigns, nor did he don their proper attire. He was ignorant
of the sense of duty between sovereign and subject, and the affections between father and son.
If he were alive today, and were on a state mission to visit the court in the capital, and if Your
Han Yu, “A Memorial on the Relic of the Buddha” | 357
Majesty would generously receive him, [Your Majesty] would merely grant him one audience in
the Hall of Manifest Government ( Xuanzheng dian).14 After one banquet was held at the Office
of Foreign Relations,15 and one set of attire was conferred on him, [Your Majesty] would have
guards escort him out of the country so that he would not be able to delude the masses.
All the more, now that he has been dead for long, how can his withered and decayed bones and
baleful and filthy remains be allowed into the forbidden palace? Confucius said, “Revere ghosts
and spirits but keep them at a distance.”16 In antiquity, when the various princes17 were about to
hold mourning ceremonies in their states, even they would request shamans to use peach-wood
charms and magic brooms to eradicate the ill-omened before they proceeded. Today for no good
reason the decayed and filthy object was brought to light for Your Majesty’s viewing. It was neither
proceeded by shamans nor exorcised by peach-wood charms and magic brooms. No ministers
have ever talked about its wrongs, and no censors have ever cited its faults. Your servant is
truly mortified by this.
I pray that [Your Majesty] will have the relic delivered to the government agency concerned,
which will depose of it in water or fire so as to permanently destroy its roots. If [Your Majesty]
puts to rest doubts under Heaven and stops once and for all [Buddhism] from deluding posterity,
all under Heaven will be aware of the achievement by you the great sage, which is hundreds of millions
of times greater than that of ordinary people. Isn’t that wonderful? Isn’t that cause for joy?
If the Buddha should possess soul and the power to cause misfortunes, let all such calamities
be visited upon your servant. Let Heaven be the witness: your servant shall never regret it.
With great gratitude and extreme sincerity, I present this memorial for Your Majesty’s
consideration.
Your servant in genuine fear and trepidation.18
—VCX
Notes
- By genre, this is a biao, which is a formal, written address submitted to the throne. A biao is normally
fairly lengthy and adheres to a particular format.
- Chen mou yan (literally, “[your] vassal so-and-so says”) is the formal beginning of a biao.
- The rulers from Huang Di to Shun are legendary Sage Kings of the dim past. Yu was the alleged
founder of the semihistorical Xia dynasty.
- King Tang (Dayi) was the founder of the Shang dynasty. Taiwu, also known as Dawu, was the tenth
sovereign of the Shang, and Wuding the twenty-third. The Shang genealogy is recorded somewhat differently
in oracle-bone inscriptions than it is in the history books, which were written a thousand or more
years after the kings in question lived and ruled.
- King Wen was a predynastic leader of the Zhou people. His son, King Wu, founded the Western Zhou
dynasty. King Mu was the fifth sovereign of the Western Zhou. None of the extremely long reign periods
and ages of the rulers mentioned here and above can be confirmed by modern historical research.
- Buddhism almost certainly began to trickle into China before this time albeit in an inchoate and confused
fashion, but the reign of Han Mingdi is generally recognized as the period when the presence of Buddhism
may be historically attested.
- The four southern regimes of Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen were all based in Jiankang (present-day
Nanjing). The Northern Wei was based first in Pingcheng (Datong), then Luoyang (east of present-day
Luoyang).
- Wudi actually gave himself up as a menial to a Buddhist monastery on several occasions, and was
indeed an extraordinarily devout follower of Buddhism.
358 | Han Yu, “A Memorial on the Relic of the Buddha”
- The Taicheng, or Terrace City, was the central palace of Jiankang under the Liang. It was sacked by
Hou Jing’s rebel army in 549.
- Tang Gaozu issued, among other things, the “Edict to Purge Buddhism and Daoism” (Shatai Fo Dao
zhao).
- This is in reference to Xianzong’s edict in 807. Xianzong wanted to curb ordinations for the purpose
of tax benefits and the building of extravagant monasteries.
- Fengxiang is in present-day Fengxiang, Shaanxi, west of Xi’an. Danei was an alternative name for the
Palace City in Tang Chang’an.
- Han Yu is referring to instances of self-mutilation (highly disturbing to Confucius, who set great store
by the bodies bequeathed to us by our parents) that sometimes occurred out of excessive zeal on the part
of Buddhist devotees.
- The emperor held court in the Xuanzheng Hall. It was located north of the Hanyuan Hall in the
Daming Palace, the second palace complex of Tang Chang’an.
- Libin as a government office is not recorded in the two Tang official histories or in the Six Canons of
the Tang (Tang liu dian). It should be a Middle- to Late-Tang office dealing with reception of foreign guests
under the Court for Dependencies (Honglu si).
- The text is quoted from chapter 6 of the Analects (Lunyu).
- This is in reference to the Spring and Autumn period.
- The phrase cheng huang cheng kong is a pro forma expression often used at the end of a memorial to
show respect to the recipient.
in 843 c.e., a war broke out between the dispersed Uyghurs, whose empire had collapsed in 840
(see selection 55), and the Tang. Subsequently, the Tang regime under Wuzong confiscated the
property of the Manichaean monasteries, ostensibly because of a close connection between the
Turkic Uyghurs of Inner Asia and the Manichaean religion from West Asia. This event actually
initiated a general persecution of all foreign religions in China two years later. Nestorian Christianity
and Zoroastrianism were wiped out, the Nestorian church returning to China only after the
Mongol invasion. Manichaeanism and Zoroastrianism survived underground and only in remote
areas. Buddhism, which received the brunt of the attack, not only survived in the core region of
the Tang regime but also revived soon after Wuzong’s reign. This account from the Old Tang History
( Jiu Tangshu), juan 18A provides some clues as to why it was so difficult to eradicate Buddhism
and explains how this Indian religion was so deeply rooted in China.—XRL, VHM
On the gengzi day in the seventh month of autumn (August 31, 845), the emperor (Wuzong)
issued an edict to restrict the numbers of Buddhist monasteries under heaven (i.e., in the empire).
The Secretariat Chancellery submitted a memorial to the throne:
According to the rules and statutes of the law(ling, shi), officers of superior prefectures should
perform the ceremony of burning incense in temples on anniversaries of ancestor emperors.
Therefore, may Your Majesty allow one monastery in every superior prefecture wherein all the
statues of sacred figures could be sheltered; monasteries in inferior prefectures should be closed.
Please allow ten monasteries on the two major streets of both Chang’an (Shangdu [the Upper
Capital]) and Luoyang (Dongdu [the Eastern Capital ]) to stay, with ten monks allowed to remain
in each monastery.
His Majesty issued an imperial order which said:
It is fitting that monasteries be allowed to remain in superior prefectures, but only those of
fine workmanship may stay. Those that are dilapidated, though located in superior prefectures,
should also be closed and torn down. On anniversaries when incense is to be burned, it is appropriate
for officials to carry out the rituals at Taoist temples. Two monasteries are allowed to stay
on each of the [two main] streets in both the Upper Capital (Chang’an) and the Lower Capital
(Luoyang), and thirty monks are allowed to remain in each monastery. On the Left Street of the
Upper Capital, Ci’en Monastery and Jianfu Monastery may stay. On the Right Street, Ximing
Monastery and Zhuangyan Monastery may stay.
The Secretariat submitted another memorial to the throne:
As most of the monasteries under heaven are to be closed, bronze statues, bells, and gongs
should be handed over to the Salt and Iron Monopoly Commissioner to be cast into coins; iron
statues should be handed over to prefectures where the monasteries are located and cast into
agricultural tools. Gold, silver, and brass statues and statues of other materials should be melted
down for government expenditure. All the gold, silver, bronze, and iron statues in the homes of
nobles ( yiguan) and commoners (shishu) must be turned over to the government offices within one
56 | Political and Economic Problems
concerning Buddhism
378 | Political and Economic Problems concerning Buddhism
month after this edict is issued. Those who do not obey this order should be punished by the
Ministry of the Salt and Iron Monopoly Commissioner according to the “Law of Banning Possession
of Bronze.” Statues made of clay, wood, and stone are allowed to remain in the monasteries
as before.
The Secretariat again submitted a memorial to the throne:
Monks and nuns should not be administered by the Ministry of Sacrifices (cibu). They should
be administered by the Court of State Ceremonial (honglusi).1 As Buddhist monasteries are banned,
other heterodox religions such as the Roman church (Nestorian church) and Zoroastrian shrines
should not be allowed either. Staff of these religious institutions should be ordered to return to
secular life and to their home places as taxpayers. The foreigners of those religious institutions
should be returned to their proper places to be administered.
In the eighth month, a decree was issued:
I, the sovereign, have heard that, in the Three Dynasties (Xia, Shang, and Zhou) period of
antiquity, there was no mention of Buddhism. Only after the Han and the Wei dynasties did the
doctrine of images2 gradually arise. Thus, the propagation of this strange custom started in that
late time and, in accord with the circumstances,3 has tainted our practices, spreading and multiplying.
It has developed to the extent that, though it eats away at our national customs, we no
longer notice; it seduces people and makes them confused. It has penetrated to mountains and
plains all over the empire and within the city walls of the two capitals. The number of monks daily
increases, and monasteries are growing in grandeur. Buddhist construction projects cost much
human labor, while monastic ornaments of gold and other treasures deprive society of much benefit.
Religious teachers have come to replace rulers and fathers; monastic discipline separates husband
and wife. No other religion is more harmful to the law and human relations than Buddhism.
Furthermore, when one farmer is not cultivating the land, there must be someone starving as a
result; when one woman is not raising silkworms, there must be someone shivering in the cold.
At the present moment, there are innumerable monks and nuns under heaven who wait for
farmers to feed them and women to clothe them. Temples and monasteries have been constructed
extravagantly tall and ostentatiously ornamented, defying regulations and daring to imitate the
style of royal palaces. During the Jin, Song, Qi, and Liang dynasties, these practices caused the
depletion of material wealth and labor and the deterioration of moral standards. Moreover, my
ancestors Gaozu and Taizong pacified turmoil through military force and administered China
with a civil system. These two instruments are quite sufficient for running the country. How can
this trivial religion from the west contend with our state structure! During the eras of Zhenguan
(627–649) and Kaiyuan (713–742), there were also efforts to eliminate Buddhism. However, the
eradication was not thorough, thus its influence became even greater. I, the sovereign, after
broadly surveying what has been discussed in previous times and seeking out current opinion,
realize that whether this corrupt practice can be eliminated depends on determination. Meanwhile,
all the loyal officers inside or outside the court who assist me wholeheartedly have submitted
appropriate recommendations to me, saying that the reform should be enforced. Why should
I avoid this action, which will block the origin of evil that has prevailed for a thousand years, protect
the integrity of the royal code enacted by a hundred kings, and benefit all the people?
When the 4,600 and more major monasteries under heaven are demolished, 260,500 monks
and nuns will return to secular life to become taxpayers in the Double Tax system;4 when more
than 40,000 small monasteries and temples are demolished, several million hectares of fertile land
will be confiscated, and 150,000 male and female slaves will become taxpayers in the Double Tax
system. The remaining monks and nuns are to be placed under the supervision of the Bureau of
Receptions (for Foreign Guests) (Zhuke), thus the fact that Buddhism is a religion for foreignPolitical
and Economic Problems concerning Buddhism | 379
ers will be made obvious. The 3,000 and more followers of Christianity and Zoroastrianism are
ordered to return to secular life to maintain the purity of Chinese mores.
Oh! It seems as though that which has not been carried out in the past is about to become true!
How can one claim that those institutions will never be eliminated when they are completely
gone? More than 100,000 idle and lazy persons have already been driven out of monasteries;
thousands and thousands of those useless, colorful houses have been demolished. From now on,
our motto is to be quiet and pure, and our model is to follow the principle of nonaction.5 Our
administration should be simple and efficient, following only one style. All the people of the
country should be subjects of the empire. As this is the beginning of the reform, there is no
known omen, so I have issued this edict clarifying matters to the court in order to make you
understand my intention. . . .
On jiachen day in the eleventh month (December 3, 845), the emperor issued an edict:
Because monks and nuns have returned to secular life, no one is in charge of the lands for
charity and houses for sick people. I am afraid the crippled and the sick will have no food supply.
The two capitals should provide monasteries with a suitable amount of charity lands. Every
prefecture and superior prefecture should set aside [approximately] seventeen to twenty-five
acres (seven to ten hectares) and select an elder local to manage them, in order to make grain
available for porridge (for the poor).
—XRL, VHM
Notes
- It is significant that the Court of State Ceremonial was that branch of the Tang government charged
with foreign relations.
- “Doctrine of images” is a technical term referring to the second stage in the development of Buddhism,
but here it is used loosely to signify Buddhism in general.
- The emperor here uses another Buddhist technical term, yinyuan (Skt. hetupratyaya), ironically showing
how the alien religion influenced even his own style.
- The “Double Tax” was a taxation system established around 780 c.e. In this new system, taxes were
calculated according to the number of laborers and the amount of property owned by the taxpaying household,
not purely on the number of households as in the previous system. Taxes were collected twice a year
after the harvests of the summer and autumn; thus it was called “Double Tax.”
- It is interesting that Wuzong here prescribed the Taoist notion of wuwei (nonpurposive action; not
doing anything against nature). The Tang royal house had a fondness for Taoism because its very common
surname, Li, happened to be the same as that of the supposed founder of the religion, Lao Zi. A further
irony is that, although their surname can ostensibly be traced back through Li Gao (d. 417), founder of the
Western Liang kingdom (400–421) in Gansu, to Li Guang (d. 125 b.c.e.), the Western Han general who
also hailed from Gansu, the Tang royal family was of at least half northern, non-Sinitic blood.
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| Subject | Essay Writing | Pages | 12 | Style | APA |
|---|
Answer
How Buddhism Challenged the Existing Order of Chinese Society Between 200 and 900
This paper advances the argument that, between 200 and 900, Buddhism greatly challenged the existing order of the Chinese society by altering human relations, transforming the national practices and customs, and converting numerous Chinese into monks. The rise of Buddhism to prominence within the Chinese society commenced after the Wei and the Han dynasties. This period saw the emergence of the doctrine of images. Buddhism experienced widespread acceptance in China, and this resulted in tremendous growth of this religion (Mair 378). This paper discusses how Buddhism challenged the prevailing order of Chinese society between 200 and 900.
The gaining of roots by Buddhism in Chinese society was accompanied by significant transformations or alteration of social relations and order. Buddhism started as a humanist and individualistic soteriology which sermonized the rejection of typical householder life and its linked rituals. Monks and nuns forsake work and worldly action, and lay individuals support them in return for spiritual and ritual services. Liu and Mair support this argument because he argues that several monks and nuns beneath heaven await agriculturalists to feed them and women to dress them (378). The monastic discipline separated wives and husbands, and hence proved to be the most harmful religion to the human relations and law (Mair 378). In addition, other aspects of social order within the Chinese society were greatly disrupted. For instance, women’s occupation with Buddhism prevented them from engaging in their routine family duties such as raising silkworms, which were needed to safeguard individuals from cold. Furthermore, occupation with Buddhism hindered several farmers from cultivating the land, which in turn created food shortage (Mair 378). Even though the Lotus Sutrahas challenged the arguments that Buddhism is meant to deprive the poor, Mair asserts that construction projects executed by Buddhists cost much human labor, and that the monastic ornaments made of treasures including gold deprived the Chinese society their economic gains or benefits (378). It is also vital to note that Buddhism created a social structure characterized by religious teachers or monks replaced fathers and rulers by assuming their leadership roles (378). As such, the Chinese social order which prioritized rulers and fathers as leaders was greatly undermined.
Apart from altering the social relations and depriving majority Chinese families of their economic gains, Buddhism also challenged the prevailing social order of the Chinese by replacing their customs and values with doctrines from the Lotus Sutra. The Lotus Sutra is crucial in Mahayana Buddhism, and it became renowned after its translation to Chinese and was perceived as amongst the canonical sutras of Chinese Buddhism. The sutras are termed the Lotus Sutra since the lotus signified the coherence of cause and impacted chiefly the cause of aiming to enlightenment (Buddhahood) and the impact of achieving it because the lotus is a flower that blossoms and seeds concurrently. Likewise, it signifies the Buddhahood purity was thriving in the middle of everyday lives, same as the lotus thrives in muddy pond water. After the Buddha's death, the Buddhist orders were divided into two camps: the elder’s school, which concentrates on maintaining customs, and the excellent congregation school, which focused on adapting societal changes.
Buddhism contributed to the conversion of several Chinese into monks and nuns by convincing them using the Lotus Sutra doctrine, thereby disrupting the prevailing social order. The early sectarian schools preserved and dispersed the Buddha's teachings and had a social impact as monastic commands, and that an enormous number of laypersons supported those schools. After the first century, another new group emerged from part of the sectarian schools whose intentions were to assist all humans in achieving Buddhahood. This group named their teaching “Mahayana” (great vehicle). Lotus Sutra is known for its seven parables. The first and most well-known is the burning house parable (The Lotus Sutra 448). This parable, according to Buddha is the dominion of rebirth where he is the dad and the kids are the sentiment universe beings so engrossed in the world that they disregard is dangers. Aware of the fondness and abilities of sentient beings, the Buddha entices them to different escape paths Samsara by providing them something that allures to their restricted desires. But this is his skillful means. Upon setting out on that path or even reaching its ultimate destination, he discloses that there is only one that and one aim: the single-vehicle to Buddhahood. This inspiring disclosure is followed by an unattractive explanation of the fate that anticipates those who disregard the Lotus Sutra and belittle those who follow it. After their demise, they will be reborn in hell, and when they have afterward reincarnated as humans, they will agonize all sorts of diseases.
The Buddha's disclosure of the single-vehicle triggers the great arhats, starting with Sariputrato demand future Buddhahood prophesies (The Lotus Sutra 447), something that all bodhisattvas must get to progress on the Buddhahood path. Also, they clarify that they were unaware that they were valuable to follow this path, demonstrating this with the prodigal son’s parable (The Lotus Sutra 450). the prodigal son left home when his dad had amassed massive wealth. When the son ultimately returns, he feels pitiful to claims his birthright, and his dad must use different methods toassure him of his destiny. The Buddha's skillful implies are demonstrated in the conjured city parable. In this parable, Buddha is the leader, and the treasure is the Buddhahood. If Buddha has clarified how long the Buddhahood path was, several will not pursue it from the inception. Thus, he inspires beings to pursue the nirvana of the arhat. But upon reaching it, he clarifies that it is an illusion and that the actual objective lies ahead. Intertwined via the sutra are what he termed as the methods of legitimation.
The Buddha narrates several narratives from the far distant past afore past incidents illustrated in the earlier traditions. Thus, these narratives define the Lotus Sutra being taught in ancient times in foreign universities with the Buddha's ancient audience members. In contrast, he was a bodhisattva nor materializing in the current. If the Lotus Sutra was taught decades ago, it could not be a contemporary innovation; something Buddhism has customarily denounced.Likewise discovered in the sutra are different prophecies and pledges of the glories that anticipate the Lotus devotees even if that dedication takes modest version as reciting sutra’s single verse, providing flowers to the text, or only connecting one's hand in reverence. Thus, those altruistic cautions are sometimes combined with cautions and not only of the fate that anticipates those who decline to recognize that the Lotus Sutra is Buddha’s word. Buddha, from the onset, meant to preach this Buddha vehicle doctrine. However, he was aware that the persons with no penchant for listening to the Buddha's law would not believe in it. However, on the contrary, would slander it. Hence to nurture individuals’ capabilities to the same level, he initially spent forty years preaching.
Foster supports the Lotus Sutra teachings with his demonstration of Bodhidharma practices of the Chan Buddhist tradition in china and the disunion period (295). Bodhidharma, its first patriarch, was an Indian monk who came to China and underlined the significance of the direct encounter of enlightenment via meditation. He was uninterested in the intricate ideologies that defined other Buddhism schools in china; he termed Chan a school of mind-to-mind dispersion without composed texts. The Platform Sutra of the sixth patriarch comprises several of the Chan school's primary ideas via the Huineng’s life. A modern Guangdong province native and originally an unschooled firewood peddler, Huineng’s joined the Chan monastery run by the Fifth Patriarch, Huineng’s, after listening to a traveling monk preaching (Foster 296). The platform Sutra begins with Huineng’s discovering of a successor to become the sixth patriarch. The Platform Sutra is amongst the most renowned and influential Chinese Chan texts Buddhist custom. Besides, it is perceived as the characteristic and culminating text of the early Chan for several Buddhist educators and scholars. The sutras illustrate Huineng's life and teachings. The Platform Sutra is both novels and challenging since it challenges customary thoughts concerning enlightenment, meditation, spiritually nourishing, and other elements of orthodox Buddhist teachings.
Although initially provoking, it ultimately triggered some unity to Chan beliefs and practice and created trends methodically created in the Middle Chan and Song dynasty Chan eras. Huineng triggered the Northern-Southern school clash and other fewer polemic writers. He wanted to promote his version of Chan ideals and practice advocating for south china culture over north china and position himself to become the seventh patriarch (Foster 296). The Platform Sutra was composed during a vigorous discussion in the progressing Chan school over matters like who the actual sixth patriarch was, what constituted the authentic Chan teachings, and how the newly fabricated Chan lineage of patriarchs dating back to the historic Buddha could most effectively be integrated into their teachings. Also, Huineng's position was somehow low; he worked in the monastery winnowing room. Upon becoming the sixth patriarch, the Chan school separated. Shenxiu, his competitor, led the Northern school, whereas Huineng steered the southern school. Ultimately the southern school prevailed. Thus, their differing perspectives are enshrined in the poems each made to articulate his comprehension of Chan.
The Platform Sutra comprise the debate between the northern and southern Chan schools regarding if enlightenment was ongoing. The outcome of sustained study and achievement of progress levels along the Buddhist path (the northern school position), or impulsive a prompt understanding of one's thought's pure aspect (the southern school position). The Platform Sutra hence signifies the advent and ultimate supremacy of the orthodox (Foster 297). Whereas the southern claim holds that the mind is crucially pure by nature, it champions the twin meditation methods and knowledge to achieve enlightenment. Huineng. To operate in this manner is to make oneself inert and not as per the Dao, which can function freely if the mind is open. If one tries as some individuals do to perceive the mind and preserve it sedentary, they become radically troubled and never attain enlightenment. Huineng indirectly condemns the northern school in his account of the meditation, making persons unresponsive and sedentary. He continues his condemnation when he argues that the mistaken teachers suggest a steady enlightenment course. In contrast, the enlightened teachers performed the sudden enlightenment method. Huineng argued that to learn one’s mind or to learn one’s original nature is a similar thing and if individuals vary regarding the enlightenment because some individuals are unwise and misinformed. In contrast, others are aware of the enlightenment method—Huineng advocates for no-thought as the primary meditation doctrine.
Liu and Mair argue that Emperor Wuzong's dislike for the Buddhist religion made hos gave the mandate to limit the Buddhist monasteries' numbers under heaven (378). The memorial written by the secretariat chancellery to the throne proposing that one monastery in each greater prefecture where all the sacred figures statues could be protected and closing of monasteries in inferior regions. But the majesty issued an imperial order commanding that suitable monasteries be permitted in superior prefectures however only those of fine workmanship were to stay. but the dilapidated although positioned in superior prefectures were to be closed and torn down (Liu and Mair 378). Only two monasteries were permitted to remain on the Changan and Luoyang streets and thirty monks permitted to stay in every monastery. However, the secretarial submitted another memorial to the throne proposing casting the bronze statues, gongs, and bells into coins, and the issuance of the iron statues to prefectures and cast into agricultural tools. Likewise, the proposed the melting of gold, silver and brass statues for government expenditures as well as those in nobles and commoners’ homes be handed over to government offices in a month. People who disobeyed those orders were punished (Liu and Mair 378).
In conclusion, Buddhism largely challenged the existing Chinese social order between 200and 900 by transforming the Chinese values and customs, converting several Chinese men and women into nuns and monks, and altering social relations. This argument has been justified effectively in this paper by focusing on three primary source texts by Mair, Liu, and Foster.
References
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Foster, Robert. "47. Selections from the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch." Hawai ‘i Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture. University of Hawaii Press, 2005. 295-299. Liu, Xinru, and Victor H. Mair. "56. Political and Economic Problems concerning Buddhism." Hawai ‘i Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture. University of Hawaii Press, 2005. 377-379. The Lotus Sutra
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