Answer

1. ASSIGNMENT 2 PART 2

   Report of Culturally Inclusive Teaching Practices

   Teaching Indigenous Learners

   The growing discrepancy between the cultural linguistic/cultural backgrounds of teachers and learners in learning institutions across Australia has prompted the need to instructional practices that are culturally responsive and sensitive. The need for culturally responsive teaching practice is further demonstrated by reports showing that learners from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds witness academic achievement at considerably lower rates as compared to others (Bottiani, Bradshaw, & Gregory, 2018). In particular, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander learners encompass the fastest growing learner population in Australia but witness the lowest academic success rates, as well as, school completion as compared to other groups (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL, 2020). Chu (2013) mentioned that culturally responsive pedagogy is critical for instructors to foster academic success among learners from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This implies that instructors should develop tools that can assist them to measure culturally inclusiveness and ensure that all learners regardless of their linguistic or cultural backgrounds are accorded equal learning opportunities. Currently, there are various tools that have been developed to measure the learners’ perspective of their instructors’ practices. Therefore, this paper critically examines one of the reports written by my fellow students. In particular, it identifies the strengths, the assumptions underlying the application of Teachers Self-reflection Measurement Tool (TSRMT) developed by the student, and ways in which it could be notionally improved. The paper also seeks to compare the tool with my own (, Culturally Responsive Classroom Management Self-Efficacy Scale (CRSMSE) and then readdress the literature to suggest ways in which my tool can be improved.

    

    

    

   Cultural Inclusive Teaching Practices

               Cultural responsive teaching has been defined as incorporating the perspectives, experiences and histories of learners from various cultural backgrounds into teaching practices. The underlying assumption of cultural responsive teaching is that the academic achievement of learners can be enhanced when skills and knowledge is delivered in ways that are in line with their cultural frame of reference (Dickson, Chun, & Fernandez, 2016). Jensen, Whiting and Chapman (2018) also noted that cultural inclusive teaching entails high academic and behavioral expectations for all learners and offering the necessary support for all the learners to be successful. Understanding the interests and strengths, as well as, creating learning activities that build on these interests and strengths is a critical way in which instructors can offer the necessary support to foster student learning and cultural inclusiveness in learning. By supporting the learning needs of each learner, instructors exhibit their desire to foster learning and depict the assumption that every student can learn. Besides, instructors who treat every learner with respect create expectations for cooperate learning and mutual respect within the learning environment and inspires students to learn and support one another (Larson, & Bradshaw, 2017).

                 In their study, Milner (2014) defined cultural competency as facilitating the growth of cultural competence and healthy cultural identities in all learners. Instructors can facilitate this process can pointing out and appreciating learners’ cultural competencies and linking their present knowledge to future learning. This might entail enabling or participating in the use of learners’ home language, either informally or formally within the classroom, incorporating multicultural information into the learning content and bringing on board parent in their children’s learning. Moreover, the use of learners’ native or home language within the classroom can be a critical learning tool in fostering the strengths of code switching, in assisting learners express themselves and in showing the value for language apart from English (Petchauer, 2015). Incorporating materials and information from various cultures into the learning content can play a critical role in bridging the cultural gap between home and school for non-mainstream learners and assist learners from diverse cultural backgrounds understand and appreciate the cultures of their fellow students and teachers as well.

               Cultural inclusiveness requires that instructors establish multicultural competencies and competencies within the general teaching pedagogy. In particular, cultural responsive teachers must design cultural sensitive attitudes and awareness, as well as, cultural knowledge regarding certain ethnic groups (Russell, & Russell, 2014). More importantly, culturally inclusive teachers must develop necessary skills to use cultural knowledge and awareness to offer culturally and equitable learning chances to culturally diverse learners (Chu, 2013).

   Cultural Inclusiveness Measuring Tools

                Numerous tools have been created to measure the cultural sensitivity and awareness of teachers, as well as, cultural biases and attitudes not forgetting multicultural competencies and concerns regarding working with learners from different backgrounds (Siwatu, 2007). The stated measures allow for the self-evaluation of instructors’ and pre- service instructors multicultural competencies but are limited since teachers’ self-reports may not inaccurately depict the real classroom practice. In a bid to offer a more accurate evaluation of instructors’ potential for cultural inclusive teaching, I used social cognitive theory formulated by Bandura in the year 1977 to establish a combination of two tools Culturally Responsive Self Efficacy Scale (CRTSE) and the Culturally Responsive teaching Outcome Expectancy Scale (CRTOE). As stated in the social cognitive theory formulated by Bandura (1977), the real behavior of a person can be predicted accurately by evaluating self-efficacy beliefs, as well as, expectancy beliefs.

               The CRTSE is a 40-item Likert scaled tool used to gather information from pre-service instructors regarding their efficacy in performing certain teaching tasks and practices connected to instructors who have implemented a culturally responsive pedagogy (Siwatu, 2011). Using this scale, the preservice instructors can be requested to indicate their level of confidence that ranges from 0 (no confidence) to 100 (completely confident) on various issues. The responses from each item can then be averaged to design a CRTSE strength index. This index denotes a quantitative indicator of the strength of each pre-service instructor’s CRTSE and can act as a Meta analytic summary tool for evaluating the culturally inclusive teaching pedagogies of instructors. Higher scores on the CRTSE indicate that pre-service teachers are more confident in their ability to adopt culturally responsive teaching.

               CRTOE is another tool that I developed to assess the confidence of teachers in the efficacy of culturally responsive teaching to yield positive learning outcomes. CRTOE is a 26 item designed to evaluate the beliefs of teachers that engaging in culturally responsive teaching practices will positively influence classroom, as well as, learners outcomes. Here, the teachers can be requested to indicate their level of confidence that ranges from 0 (no confidence) to 100 (completely confident) on various items related to cultural inclusiveness.

               Essentially, I developed the two tools mentioned above based on a detailed literature assessment of culturally responsive pedagogy that encompassed the works of various scholars. Culturally responsive teaching practices can be grouped into various domains that encompass curriculum and instruction, the use of learners’ prior experience and cultural knowledge to improve the reciprocal process of learning and teaching. The next domain used to group the responsive cultural teaching the class management, which entails the facilitation of a classroom environment that brings on board the values of unique cultural background of every learner.

   Teachers Self-Reflection Measurement Tool

                Student assessment is an essential domain popularly used for cultural responsive teaching.  The author in the report developed Teachers Self-reflection Measurement Tool (TSRMT) entails using various assistant to assess student learning and foster knowledge and skill required to prosper in the pluralistic society, as well as, the affirmation of different cultures and languages. This tool as indicated in the report measure culturally responsive teaching. In particular, its structure aligns with the quantitative technique of scale where instructors will measure assess their self-reflection towards cultural responsive teaching. The tool entails various items and factors linked to classroom management behavior, self-efficacy beliefs, teacher engagement with communities and students, as well as, teacher support and knowledge of demographics of Aboriginal culture.

   Underlying assumptions

                   The major assumptions underlying the application of TSRMT is that the tool can significantly help predict the number of ODRs delivered by instructors. It was assumed that the teachers self-reported ODRs and that they were accurate in their reporting. It was also reported that instructors reported a one month period that was adequate estimate of their delivery.  It was assumed that all these issues did not yield any measurement error. Therefore, there was a simple correlation between measures of multicultural competence and ODRs. It was also assumed that it was impossible for the tool to collect other measures of exclusionary discipline such as expulsions and suspensions. Essentially, this information would have been challenging to gather at the secondary level because the learners may have been expelled or suspended from class due to various reasons.

               It was also assumed that the findings of the measures of multicultural competence did not considerably differ between instructors of aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, as well as, those of linguistic majority groups resulting in a critical point. Assuming that a person may have a competency based an instructor might have a competency based on their social background could be a challenge. Therefore, it was assumed that the construct of multicultural competence was taught, observed, practiced and continually improved. Another critical assumption underlying the application of this tool is that instructors who share similar ethnic match with most of the students did not differ in their supposed relationships with their learners.

                 It was equally assumed that a high level of multicultural training was considerably linked to higher values on the measure of multicultural self-efficacy. Reportedly, training on multicultural teaching pedagogies could benefit an instructor who believes that he or she can adopt multicultural sensitive teaching practices. Therefore, future studies should pay more attention to the positive impacts of multicultural training for instructors. This can assist inform the specific information that may be delivered during the training, what can be translated easily during the training, as well as, ways in which instructors may detect a rise in the level of their confidence to deal with learners of diverse social and linguistic backgrounds.

               It was assumed that when TSRMT is used, all measures of multicultural competence is unlikely to explain a higher level of variance in the ODR above and beyond FRL. The author assumed that the multicultural competence would assist give detailed explanation of the teacher discipline practices.

    

   Strengths of the Tool

                As compared to CRTSE) and (CRTOE) tools that I developed, TSRMT tool is relatively superior. One of its strengths is that it enhances culturally inclusive practices within the classroom because it enables instructors to carry out self-reflection on various items of the tool to understand their behavior and practice of culturally inclusive teaching practice. As opposed to CRTSE) and (CRTOE) tools that have 40 Likert scale that is quite difficult to read and interpret, TSRMT has a 5 point Likert scale in which teachers can range themselves. The 5 point Liker scale has a greater validity and depth to evaluate the data for teaching practices as compared to yes or no questions commonly present in CRTSE) and (CRTOE). More importantly, Teachers Self-Reflection Measurement Tool is more convenient and saves time for instructors as compared to CRTSE) and (CRTOE) tools. The reasoning is that the former has fewer items on its Likert scale and thus the instructors require little time to analyze each item and gain precise information as compared to CRTSE) and (CRTOE) tools where the instructor requires much time to assess each item to come up with a substantive conclusion regarding beliefs and other elements of cultural inclusive teaching practices.

               A key strength of Teachers Self-Reflection Measurement Tool is that it facilitates brain processing. As revealed by past studies that cultural norms and knowledge contribute significantly to mathematical thinking and reading comprehension, TSRMT has 5 point Likert scale key that provides teachers with new information when it is connected to what these teachers already know. This implies that using materials, examples, and texts that draw from students’ cultural schemas and background knowledge makes learning boost learning since it leverages the existing neural pathways of learners.

   Teachers Self-Reflection Measurement Tool engages and motivates learners and teachers so that they can be culturally aware and conscious. As already mentioned, Teachers Self-Reflection Measurement Tool has key elements that make teachers to be culturally responsive, thereby making learning experiences more personally engaging, meaningful and effective. For instance, findings of an empirical study conducted by Young et al., (2019) where Teachers Self-Reflection Measurement Tool was used revealed that this tool was linked to better attendance. However, in another study where CRTSE) and (CRTOE) tools were used, the learners who participated in the study reported feeling more demotivated to participate in mathematics and less confident to take standardized starts.  The difference in the results of the two studies mentioned here indicated that CRTSE) and (CRTOE) tools are less reliable and valid as compared to Teachers Self-Reflection Measurement Tool

   Weaknesses

                One of the major concerns with Teachers Self-Reflection Measurement as a tool lies on the design of the items that are relatively resemble knowledge based no or yes questions. Although they are based on 5 silent themes that are critical in understanding teaching culturally diverse students, the dichotomous information that majorly is in the form of no or yes questions can lead to statistical analysis that result in relatively less variability as compared to other tools and scales with continuous variables. Similarly, the validity of this tool can only be determined using a panel review while discriminant validity can be determined by only comparing the scores of teachers with those that hardly practice cultural inclusive teaching. Essentially, these procedures indicate validity and reliability but the generalizability and scope of the tool is relatively limited.

               Secondly, although this tool attempts to address reliability and validity through expert panel and a correlational analysis with same measures, the factors that this tool address focus majorly on the construct of multicultural education that ignores tangential constructs including critical race theory and teacher stereotypes that are still critical in shaping the cultural competency and awareness of teachers. Precisely, although this tool us commonly used as compared to CRTSE) and (CRTOE), it does not cover a wide range of theoretical constructs which are critical in teaching diverse population. Zoch (2017) noted that the instrument was majorly developed for use with aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and therefore is not be generalizable to more diverse populations. For this reason, additional research is required with increased number of single minority population or rather overall more diverse population across Australia.

               Further, although Teachers Self-Reflection Measurement Tool is often effective in assessing teachers’ self-efficacy, cultural responsive and outcome expectancy beliefs, it is limited by its self-report design. In particular, myriad of caveats are intrinsic in the understanding of the information obtained from self-report tool. For instance, participants are likely to understand the measures completely different from what the author intended. Moreover, the participants may respond to questions asked in manners that they believe to be socially desirable. Moreover, the outcomes generated from this tool may depict respondents’ expectations rather than their real behaviors and attitudes.

               Another major weakness of Teachers Self-Reflection Measurement as a tool is that it ignores learners’ perspective. Russell and Russell (2014) argued that learners’ perspective is often essential but usually ignored in TSRMT. Despite this weakness, studies have revealed that information from learners concerning their views of culturally responsive teaching initiatives has been argued to prove considerably more useful than observations of third party observers (Young et al., 2019). The findings further revealed that what learners experience within the classroom might differ significantly from what instructors intended. Considering the weaknesses of TSRMT, as well as, possible differences between learners’ experience and teachers’ intention, bringing on board students’ perception is critical and necessary adjustments should be made to TSRMT to ensure that the mentioned gap is bridged.

   Alternative Approaches To Improving CRTSE) and (CRTOE)

               One of the major weaknesses of CRTSE) and (CRTOE) as already discussed is related to the validity and validity. As such to improve on this, there is need to include a large and diverse sample size. In particular, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students in other parts of the country and with learners from cultural backgrounds and grade levels to offer accurate information regarding the external validity and reliability of this tool. While the items on the Diverse Language Affirmation scale are tailored to majorly target Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, there is need to substitute other languages and ethnicities to match the cultural and linguistic backgrounds of the target learner populations.  To improve on the accuracy, validity and reliability of this tool, there is need to exclude the diverse language affirmation scale with sample of learners who have different cultures but share common language. Future improvement of the tool should also focus on reviewing the unique practices that are considered relevant to specific subject areas.

                As indicated by Siwatu (2011) that CRTSE) and (CRTOE) tools rely solely on self-report data. This according to Siwatu (2007) causes method bias. It is difficult to establish whether increased scores on instructors’ self-reported multicultural competence yield actual performance within the classroom. Other indicators of multicultural teaching competence including classroom observations or learners reports are required to offer evidence supporting the precise measurement of the construct.  Given that it is difficult for the respondents to identify the specific concepts that the tool examine, proper actions should be put in place to eradicate errors that can occur because of poor preparation of the instructors.  Given that the outcomes of the study are influenced by numerous factors, the tool should be design in a way that takes into account these issues without any compromise.

   Overall Strengths and Limitations of the Research

               Recent efforts that seek to eradicate the achievement gaps of culturally diverse learners are focused on assessment of the effectiveness of teachers. Nonetheless, paying attention to the effectiveness of the teacher without putting attention on how to made teachers ready to handle the learners. A key strength of this project is that it recognizes the current lack of adequate training in linguistically and culturally responsive knowledge, instructional skills and strategies, as well as, lack of awareness of teachers and their inability to handle culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse learners. Clearly, the author has offered a detailed explanation of experiences linguistically and culturally responsive knowledge and skills that will increase the prospective teachers’ application of tools such as CRTSE) and (CRTOE). The report has the potential of creating and including more culturally responsive experiences in detailed curricular offered early on and during the entire training process of teachers. It is expected that these learning experiences will translate into improved professional practices with learners from diverse backgrounds. It is expected that this project brings about linguistically and culturally responsive teaching practices, becomes a critical component of the teacher training process and part and parcel of teacher assessment procedure. Similarly, given that the pedagogy suggested in this report align with the performance and evaluation offered by CRTSE) and (CRTOE), the report is expected to offer evidence that depict the increasing readiness and effectiveness in using linguistically and culturally responsive teaching approaches and skills.

                Regarding the weakness, there are various challenges that can be deduced from the report that one of my classmates wrote. First, the author has articulated that there is apparent resistance to changing teaching approaches and having to evaluate new instructional techniques. The author has argued that these changes require joint effort but at the same time consumes much labour and time. However, the author has failed to provide empirical evidence to support his claim and thus it is difficult for the readers to authenticate the validity and reliability of these statements. Another weakness that can be pointed out from the above report is that teachers and other instructors are quite adamant to leave their previous teaching approaches in a bid to adopt the suggested ones. Nonetheless, it would have been better for the author to offer valid and empirical evidence to back his statements so that the readers can indeed prove such allegations.

               As pointed in the study, numerous barriers are often experienced in terms teachers understanding of these tools, misplaced expectations of instructors who believe that using such tools entails teaching learners about their cultures rather than using the known resources to complete such tasks. Another critical weakness that can be deduced from this report is whether the author of this report is viewed as the insider or a linguistically and culturally master teacher.

   Conclusion

               Due to the changing demographics of Australian classrooms, it is not anything to doubt that prospective instructors will ultimately teach culturally diverse learners. For this reason, there is need for educators to ensure that pre-service teachers are linguistically and culturally fluent. Instructors who failed to grasp the knowledge of the correlation between culture and classroom behavior appear to adopt outdated teaching approaches that are considered ineffective when working with culturally diverse learners. To adequate prepare pre-service instructors; educators across Australia must strategically determine the point of convergence between linguistic pedagogy and culturally responsive instruction and then use these points of intersections to bring on board pre-service instructors in mastery experiences. From this critical assessment of tools developed to measure cultural awareness and responsive of teachers, educators and instructors across Australia must undergo adequate training to enable them gain knowledge and awareness of different tools such as  CRTSE) and (CRTOE) among others.