Answer

• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
• Introduction
• COPD)is a common treatable and preventable disease (Qureshi, Sharafkhaneh, & Hanania, 2014).
• Mortality and morbidity globally (Qureshi et al., 2014; Scichilone et al., 2014).
• Social and economic burden (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Pathophysiology of the Alterations
• Bacterial or viral respiratory infections (70 to 80s%) (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Unknown etiologies or environmental pollutions (20 to 30%) (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Persistent airflow obstruction or limitation (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Caused by enhanced chronic inflammatory response in the airways and/or lungs by gases or noxious particles (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Elevated white blood cell count and gastro-esophageal reflux are key predictors of COPD (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Pathophysiology of the Alterations
• Dyspnea, sputum production, and a chronic cough (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Congestive heart failure may mask COPD (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Pulmonary embolism and deep venous thrombosis can contribute to acute exacerbations (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Patients Factors

Genetics

Pathophysiology of COPD

• Interaction between genetic factors and environmental factors increases susceptibility of one to COPD (Han & Lazarus, 2016).
• Family history of disease increases the risk of COPD (Han & Lazarus, 2016).
• Mutation of A1AT protease increases the risk of loss of lung function given tobacco exposure (Han & Lazarus, 2016).
• Cholinergic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor HHIP, FAM13A, and CHRNA3/5 loci are linked to disease susceptibility (Han & Lazarus, 2016).

Diagnosis of COPD

• Interleukin-6 level, D dimer, prothrombin fragment, and von Willebrand’s factor are surrogate markers for inflammation, clotting activation, and endothelial damage (Qureshi et al., 2014).

Treatment

• Individuals who are genetically predisposed to COPD warrant regular medication (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Patient Factors

Ethnicity

Pathophysiology of COPD

• Race determines distribution of COPD prevalence around the world (Han & Lazarus, 2016).
• African-Americans experience increased risk of COPD-associated mortality and prevalence rate compared to the general US population (Han & Lazarus, 2016).

Diagnosis of COPD

• COPD should be included into differential diagnoses when assessing African Americans who present with some signs and symptoms (Han & Lazarus, 2016).

Treatment of COPD

• Individuals with COPD from at risk populations should be given adequate treatment to reduce the risk of mortality (Han & Lazarus, 2016).
• Patient Factors

Age

Pathophysiology of COPD

• Young children and older people are at great risk of developing the disease (Celli & Augusti, 2018).
• The leading cause of death among people aged over 65 (Lowery et al., 2013).

Diagnosis of COPD

• Young children and older who present with breathing difficulties, chronic cough, and sputum should be assessed for COPD (Celli & Augusti, 2018).

Treatment of COPD

• Age may determine the choice of patient education strategies.
• Patient Factors

Behavior

Pathophysiology of COPD

• Smoking and cigarette smoke can exacerbate COPD (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Prevalence of COPD is about 20% among smokers compared to 4% among nonsmokers (Han & Lazarus, 2016).

Diagnosis of COPD

• Patient history should be carefully taken during clinical investigation to put all behavioral risk factors into consideration (Celli & Augusti, 2018).

Treatment of COPD

• Patients at risk of COPD should be prevented from cigarette smoke exposure or should not smoke (Qureshi et al., 2014).
• Exacerbations of COPD should be promptly treated to reduce risk of exacerbations (Qureshi 2014).
• COPD MIND MAP